India and its other Neighbours – Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal – UPSC Post-Independence Notes

India, a vast and diverse nation spanning from the Himalayas in the north to the Indian Ocean in the south, shares borders with several countries, each with its own unique cultural, historical, and geopolitical significance. Among its neighbors are Sri Lanka, an island nation renowned for its rich heritage and stunning landscapes; Bhutan, a small yet fiercely independent kingdom nestled in the eastern Himalayas; and Nepal, home to the world’s highest peak, Mount Everest, and a treasure trove of ancient traditions and breathtaking natural beauty. These neighboring countries share deep historical ties with India, along with complex diplomatic relationships and multifaceted economic interdependencies, making the region a fascinating tapestry of interconnected cultures and interests.

India and Nepal

India and Nepal share a unique and historically significant relationship, characterized by geographical proximity and mutual security concerns:

1. Geopolitical Significance: Nepal’s strategic location renders it inseparable from India’s external security considerations. The proximity of Nepal to India’s borders underscores the importance of maintaining stability and cooperation in the region.
2. Treaty of 1950: In July 1950, India and Nepal signed a landmark treaty in which India formally recognized Nepal’s sovereignty, territorial integrity, and independence. This treaty cemented the foundation of bilateral relations between the two nations.
3. Commitment to Cooperation: The treaty also included provisions for mutual cooperation and communication. Both countries pledged to inform each other about any significant friction or misunderstanding that may arise on any issue. This commitment reflects a shared understanding of the importance of transparency and dialogue in maintaining cordial relations.

Overall, the treaty of 1950 between India and Nepal laid the groundwork for a strong and enduring partnership, based on principles of mutual respect, cooperation, and security. Despite occasional tensions and disagreements, the relationship between India and Nepal remains vital for regional stability and prosperity.

The historical ties between India and Nepal have been deeply rooted and multifaceted, spanning various aspects:

1. Geographic and Historical Linkages: Nepal’s proximity to India and their shared borders have fostered close ties over centuries. The historical and cultural connections between the two countries date back to ancient times, with both nations having significant influences on each other’s history and development.
2. Religious and Cultural Affinities: India and Nepal share a common heritage of Hinduism and Buddhism, with important religious sites such as Lumbini, the birthplace of Lord Buddha, located in present-day Nepal. This shared religious heritage has further strengthened the cultural bonds between the two nations.
3. Open Border and People-to-People Ties: The open border between India and Nepal facilitates unhindered movement of people, fostering strong people-to-people ties. The close bonds through marriages and familial connections, often referred to as “Roti-Beti ka Rishta,” highlight the deep interpersonal relationships that exist between the two countries.
4. India-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship: Signed in 1950, the India-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship forms the cornerstone of the special relations between the two countries. This treaty underscores the commitment to mutual cooperation, security, and friendship, laying the foundation for enduring diplomatic ties.

Overall, the historical ties between India and Nepal are characterized by shared cultural, religious, and historical heritage, as well as close people-to-people connections. These bonds have been further strengthened by diplomatic agreements and treaties, emphasizing the importance of the special relationship between India and Nepal in the broader context of South Asian geopolitics.

The Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1950 between India and Nepal is a significant diplomatic agreement that outlines various aspects of bilateral relations and cooperation between the two countries. Here are its key provisions:

1. Reciprocal Treatment of Citizens: The treaty ensures reciprocal treatment of Indian and Nepali citizens in terms of residence, property ownership, business operations, and freedom of movement within each other’s territories. This provision aims to facilitate the integration and mutual welfare of citizens from both countries.
2. National Treatment for Businesses: The treaty establishes the principle of national treatment for businesses from both India and Nepal. This means that once imported, foreign goods, including those from India, would receive the same treatment as domestic goods in Nepal. This provision promotes fair trade practices and economic cooperation between the two countries.
3. Access to Weaponry: One notable provision of the treaty is that it grants Nepal access to weaponry from India. This aspect of the treaty underscores India’s commitment to supporting Nepal’s defense capabilities and ensuring its security interests in the region.

Overall, the Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1950 serves as a foundational document that promotes mutual cooperation, economic development, and security between India and Nepal. It reflects the close and enduring relationship between the two nations and lays the groundwork for continued collaboration in various fields of mutual interest.

Nepal holds significant importance for India on multiple fronts:

1. Strategic Importance for National Security: Nepal’s strategic location, sharing borders with five Indian states including Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Sikkim, and Bihar, makes it a crucial point of cultural and economic exchange. It acts as a buffer state against potential aggression from China, serving as part of India’s ‘Himalayan frontiers.’ Along with Bhutan, Nepal plays a vital role in safeguarding India’s northern borderlands.
2. Ecological and Hydropower Potential: Rivers originating in Nepal, such as the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, play a crucial role in India’s river systems, contributing to the country’s ecological balance and hydropower potential. Cooperation between India and Nepal in water resource management is essential for harnessing the full potential of these rivers for mutual benefit.
3. Cultural and Religious Significance: Nepal is home to many Hindu and Buddhist religious sites, including Lumbini, the birthplace of Lord Buddha. These sites hold immense religious and cultural significance for millions of Indians, making Nepal an essential pilgrim destination. The cultural ties between India and Nepal are further strengthened by shared religious practices, festivals, and traditions.
4. Role in International Politics: Nepal’s position in India’s perception of its role in international politics is noteworthy. India’s relations with Nepal are closely watched by other countries, given Nepal’s geopolitical significance in South Asia. India’s engagement with Nepal reflects its efforts to assert its influence and maintain stability in the region, aligning with its broader foreign policy objectives.

In summary, Nepal’s significance for India extends beyond its geographic proximity. It encompasses strategic, economic, cultural, and geopolitical dimensions, highlighting the multifaceted nature of the bilateral relationship between the two countries. Cooperation and collaboration between India and Nepal are essential for promoting regional stability, economic development, and cultural exchange in South Asia.

India and Nepal enjoy cooperation in various sectors, contributing to bilateral relations and regional development:

1. Trade and Economy: India is Nepal’s largest trade partner and source of foreign investment. Bilateral trade includes manufacturing, services, power sector, and tourism. India facilitates transit for Nepal’s third-country trade.
2. Connectivity: Both countries are enhancing connectivity through various programs, including the development of electric rail tracks and inland waterways. These initiatives aim to boost people-to-people linkages and economic growth.
3. Development Assistance: India provides development assistance to Nepal, focusing on infrastructure, health, water resources, education, and rural development. This assistance aims to uplift grassroots communities and promote socio-economic development.
4. Defence Cooperation: Bilateral defence cooperation involves modernization assistance and training for the Nepalese Army. The Gorkha Regiments of the Indian Army recruit from hill districts of Nepal. Joint military exercises, such as Surya Kiran, strengthen defence ties.
5. Cultural Exchange: Initiatives promote people-to-people contacts in art, culture, academia, and media. Sister-city agreements, such as Kathmandu-Varanasi and Lumbini-Bodhgaya, foster cultural ties.
6. Humanitarian Assistance: India provides humanitarian assistance to Nepal during natural disasters like earthquakes and floods, reflecting strong bilateral ties and mutual support.
7. Indian Community: A significant Indian community resides in Nepal, contributing to various sectors like business, healthcare, engineering, and construction. Their presence underscores people-to-people ties.
8. Multilateral Partnership: Both countries collaborate in multilateral forums like BBIN, BIMSTEC, Non-Aligned Movement, and SAARC, promoting regional cooperation and addressing common challenges.

Overall, the diverse areas of cooperation between India and Nepal reflect the depth and breadth of their bilateral relations, emphasizing mutual interests, shared values, and regional stability and development.

Recent developments between India and Nepal highlight cooperation in various sectors, including energy, infrastructure, education, and cultural exchange:

1. Arun-3 Hydro Electric Project: The approval and investment in the Arun-3 Hydro Electric project signify joint efforts in harnessing Nepal’s hydroelectric potential, benefiting both countries.
2. International Centre for Buddhist Culture and Heritage: The initiation of the India International Centre for Buddhist Culture and Heritage in Lumbini underscores cultural ties and promotes spiritual tourism.
3. Hydropower Projects: Agreements on hydropower projects like Arun-4 and West Seti demonstrate collaboration in the energy sector, contributing to Nepal’s development and addressing its energy needs.
4. Satellite Campus of IIT: India’s proposal to establish a satellite campus of the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) in Rupandehi reflects efforts to enhance educational cooperation and promote human resource development in Nepal.
5. Pancheshwar Multipurpose Project: Discussions on pending projects like the Pancheshwar Multipurpose Project emphasize ongoing efforts to implement important bilateral initiatives, fostering regional cooperation and development.
6. Cross-border Rail Link and Transmission Line: The extension of the cross-border rail link and the construction of a transmission line highlight infrastructure development efforts, enhancing connectivity and trade facilitation between the two countries.
7. Multilateral Projects: Agreements on technical cooperation in railways, Nepal’s induction into the International Solar Alliance, and cooperation in the petroleum sector demonstrate multilateral engagement and joint efforts to address common challenges.

Overall, these recent developments signify the commitment of India and Nepal to strengthen bilateral ties, promote mutual prosperity, and address shared challenges through cooperation in various sectors.

Challenges in the relationship between India and Nepal include:

1. Territorial Disputes: The unresolved Kalapani boundary issue and Nepal’s claims on certain areas have strained bilateral relations and remain contentious issues.
2. Issues with Peace and Friendship Treaty: The 1950 Treaty of Peace and Friendship is perceived as unequal by some in Nepal, leading to calls for its revision or update to reflect changing dynamics and interests.
3. Demonetisation Irritant: The aftermath of India’s demonetization exercise has affected Nepali nationals holding Indian currency, leading to economic and diplomatic concerns.
4. China’s Intervention: Nepal’s growing cooperation with China, particularly in infrastructure and economic development, has implications for India-Nepal relations and regional dynamics.
5. Internal Security: The porous Indo-Nepal border poses challenges for both countries in terms of cross-border terrorism, smuggling, and insurgent activities.
6. Trust and Ethnic Differences: There is a widening trust deficit between India and Nepal, exacerbated by perceived delays in project implementation and concerns over Indian interference in Nepal’s internal affairs. Ethnic tensions within Nepal further complicate the relationship.

Addressing these challenges requires diplomatic dialogue, mutual understanding, and efforts to build trust and cooperation on issues of common interest. Both countries must work towards resolving territorial disputes, revisiting bilateral treaties, and strengthening economic and security cooperation to foster stability and prosperity in the region.

The way forward in improving India-Nepal relations involves several key steps:

1. Dialogues for Territorial Disputes: Both countries should engage in diplomatic dialogue, guided by international law, to resolve territorial disputes peacefully. Learning from successful dispute resolutions, such as between India and Bangladesh, can provide a framework for negotiations.
2. Sensitising Towards Nepal: India should proactively engage with Nepal at various levels, including people-to-people, bureaucratic, and political interactions. Respecting Nepal’s sovereignty and avoiding interference in its internal affairs while promoting inclusivity and friendship can enhance bilateral relations.
3. Strengthening Economic Ties: Enhancing economic cooperation, particularly in the energy sector, can foster trust between the two nations. India can benefit from Nepal’s hydropower potential, addressing its own energy needs while supporting Nepal’s economic development.
4. Investments from India: Nepal should actively welcome and facilitate Indian investments, recognizing the mutual benefits of economic collaboration. Ensuring a conducive environment for foreign investments, including addressing barriers and concerns, can attract Indian businesses and promote economic growth in Nepal.

By prioritizing dialogue, mutual respect, economic cooperation, and investment promotion, India and Nepal can build a stronger and more mutually beneficial relationship, contributing to stability and prosperity in the region.

India and Bhutan

The treaty signed between India and Bhutan in August 1949 laid the foundation for a close and enduring relationship between the two countries. Here are the key points of the treaty:

1. Perpetual Peace and Friendship: The treaty aimed to establish perpetual peace and friendship between India and Bhutan, emphasizing the importance of maintaining harmonious relations.
2. Non-interference in Internal Affairs: India pledged to respect Bhutan’s sovereignty and refrain from interfering in its internal affairs. This commitment underscored India’s recognition of Bhutan as an independent and sovereign state.
3. Guidance in External Relations: Bhutan agreed to seek guidance from the Indian government in matters concerning its external relations. This provision reflected India’s role as a trusted advisor and ally for Bhutan in navigating international affairs.

Overall, the treaty reflected a relationship based on mutual respect, cooperation, and support, laying the groundwork for continued collaboration and friendship between India and Bhutan.

The recent developments in China-Bhutan relations, including China’s call for Bhutan to establish diplomatic ties and resolve the boundary issue, have significant implications for the longstanding relationship between India and Bhutan. Here’s a breakdown:

1. Impact on India-Bhutan Relations: Bhutan’s engagement with China and the potential establishment of diplomatic ties could affect the traditionally close relationship between India and Bhutan. India has historically been a key ally and supporter of Bhutan, providing economic assistance, security cooperation, and diplomatic support. Any shift in Bhutan’s foreign policy towards China could impact India’s influence in the region.
2. Boundary Issue: The unresolved boundary issue between China and Bhutan, particularly in the Doklam area, has been a source of tension and concern for both Bhutan and India. China’s push for a resolution of this issue could further complicate matters and potentially undermine Bhutan’s interests. India has previously intervened in the Doklam standoff in support of Bhutan, highlighting the strategic importance of the region for India’s security.
3. Strategic Concerns: Bhutan’s diplomatic overtures towards China raise strategic concerns for India, particularly regarding China’s expanding influence in the region. As China seeks to enhance its presence in South Asia through initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), India may perceive Bhutan’s engagement with China as a challenge to its own strategic interests and security.
4. Diplomatic Maneuvering: Bhutan’s decision to engage with China reflects its efforts to pursue an independent foreign policy and diversify its diplomatic relations. While maintaining close ties with India, Bhutan may seek to balance its relationship with China to maximize its own interests. However, navigating between these two regional powers poses diplomatic challenges for Bhutan.

Overall, the evolving dynamics between China, Bhutan, and India underscore the complex geopolitical landscape in South Asia and the strategic considerations at play. As Bhutan navigates its relations with both India and China, it faces a delicate balancing act that could have far-reaching implications for regional stability and cooperation.

Here’s a timeline of key events related to India-Bhutan relations:

1. Treaty of Punakha (1910): Bhutan becomes a protectorate state of British India, maintaining internal autonomy while ceding control over its foreign affairs to British India.
2. Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation (1949): India and Bhutan sign the Treaty of Peace and Friendship on August 8, 1949, in Darjeeling. This treaty is seen as a continuation of the Anglo-Bhutanese Treaty of 1910. It establishes a close relationship between the two countries, with India providing security assurances to Bhutan and Bhutan agreeing to be guided by India in its external relations.

These events highlight the historical ties between India and Bhutan, with the treaties serving as important pillars of their diplomatic relations.

The revised treaty of friendship and cooperation between India and Bhutan in 2007 marks a significant shift in their relationship. Here are some key points:

1. Equal Partnership: The revised treaty aims to redefine the relationship between India and Bhutan as one of close friendship and equal partnership. This reflects Bhutan’s desire for greater autonomy and independence in its foreign policy decisions.
2. Arms Import: Bhutan no longer requires India’s approval for importing arms, indicating a move towards greater sovereignty and self-reliance in defense matters. This provision underscores Bhutan’s evolving security needs and its desire to assert its independence in defense procurement.
3. Non-Use Against India’s Security: While Bhutan is free to engage with other countries without India’s approval, it is expected not to allow its territory to be used for activities against India’s security interests. This clause highlights the importance of mutual trust and security cooperation between India and Bhutan.
4. Trade and Transit Agreement: The India-Bhutan Trade and Transit Agreement of 1972 facilitates duty-free transit of Bhutanese exports to third countries through India. This agreement promotes economic cooperation and facilitates trade between the two countries, contributing to Bhutan’s economic development.
5. Hydropower Cooperation: The Treaty of Cooperation in Hydropower and Protocol of 2006 underscores India’s commitment to assisting Bhutan in developing its hydropower potential. India has agreed to import surplus electricity generated by Bhutan, fostering energy cooperation and economic integration between the two countries.

Overall, the revised treaty and other agreements reflect the evolving dynamics of the India-Bhutan relationship, characterized by mutual respect, cooperation, and shared interests. As Bhutan continues to assert its independence and pursue its development goals, its partnership with India remains a cornerstone of its foreign policy.

The cooperation between India and Bhutan spans various sectors and is characterized by mutual support and collaboration. Here are the key areas of cooperation:

1. Hydropower Cooperation: India has been instrumental in the development of hydropower projects in Bhutan, which contribute significantly to Bhutan’s domestic revenues and GDP. Several projects are currently under construction, further enhancing energy cooperation between the two countries.
2. Security Cooperation: Both countries have conducted joint military operations against insurgent groups, demonstrating their commitment to regional security and stability. Bhutan’s cooperation with India in addressing security challenges highlights their shared security interests.
3. Diplomatic Cooperation: Regular high-level visits between government officials and diplomatic exchanges underscore the strong diplomatic ties between India and Bhutan. Bhutan’s active participation in regional and international organizations, including SAARC and BIMSTEC, reflects its commitment to multilateral cooperation.
4. Economic Cooperation: India is Bhutan’s largest trading partner, and both countries have signed agreements to facilitate trade and simplify documentation processes. India also offers duty-free transit to Bhutan for trade with third countries, further enhancing economic cooperation.
5. Educational and Cultural Cooperation: Thousands of Bhutanese students study in Indian universities, fostering educational ties between the two countries. The India-Bhutan Foundation promotes cooperation in culture, education, and environmental protection, strengthening people-to-people ties.
6. Environmental Cooperation: India is considering involving Bhutan in its National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayas to protect the fragile Himalayan ecosystem. This initiative reflects their shared commitment to environmental conservation and sustainable development in the region.

Overall, the multifaceted cooperation between India and Bhutan underscores their strategic partnership and shared commitment to mutual development, security, and well-being.

The areas of contention between India and Bhutan include:

1. Motor Vehicles Agreement: Bhutan’s upper house blocked the Motor Vehicles Agreement involving BBIN countries due to environmental concerns, which strained relations between the member countries. Bhutan’s decision highlighted differences in priorities and perspectives regarding regional integration.
2. Perceived Indian Interference: Bhutan has occasionally raised concerns about India’s alleged meddling in its internal affairs. While India and Bhutan share a close relationship, Bhutan’s desire to maintain its sovereignty and autonomy has led to friction over perceived interference.
3. Trade Imbalance: There is a growing and unsustainable trade imbalance between India and Bhutan, with Bhutan experiencing a trade deficit. Changes in India’s tax policies, such as the implementation of the Goods and Services Tax (GST), have affected Bhutan’s exports, exacerbating the trade gap and causing economic challenges for Bhutan.
4. Electricity Export Tariff: Bhutan seeks to increase the export power tariff to India, which it perceives as being lower than the cost of production. This issue reflects economic disagreements between the two countries regarding the pricing of hydroelectric power, a significant aspect of their bilateral relations.
5. Security Concerns: Bhutan’s territory has been used as a safe haven by insurgent groups such as the National Democratic Front for Bodoland (NDFB), United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) militants, and Kamtapur Liberation Organization (KLO). This poses a threat to internal peace and security in India’s northeast region, leading to security tensions between India and Bhutan.

China’s role in the Indo-Bhutan relationship and the broader regional dynamics includes:

1. Distancing in Indo-Bhutan Relations: China’s increasing presence and influence in Bhutan have led to a perceived distancing in relations between India and Bhutan. Bhutan’s engagement with China, particularly in diplomatic and economic spheres, has raised concerns in India about potential shifts in Bhutan’s foreign policy alignment.
2. Revised Friendship Treaty: The revised friendship and cooperation treaty between Bhutan and India have raised concerns about China’s potential to exert influence in Bhutan’s internal affairs and foreign policy. China may seek to leverage economic assistance and investments to gain a foothold in Bhutan and counterbalance India’s influence.
3. Economic Leverage: Bhutan’s economic challenges, including high rates of unemployment and national debt, provide opportunities for China to exert its influence through economic assistance and investment. China’s economic engagement with Bhutan could potentially undermine India’s traditional role as Bhutan’s primary economic partner.
4. Territorial Claims and Security Concerns: China’s claims over territories such as the Doklam Plateau and parts of the Chumbi Valley, which legally belong to Bhutan, pose security concerns for India. These areas are strategically located close to the Indian state of Sikkim and the Siliguri Corridor, making them critical to India’s security interests. China’s assertiveness in these disputed regions has heightened tensions and prompted India to closely monitor developments along the border with Bhutan.

Overall, China’s expanding influence in Bhutan has implications for India’s security and strategic interests in the region, prompting India to closely monitor developments and engage diplomatically with Bhutan to address shared concerns.

The issue with hydropower projects and steps taken to boost relations between India and Bhutan can be summarized as follows:

Issue with Hydropower Projects:

1. Cheap Power Supply to India: Bhutan supplies power to India at a very cheap rate, which may not always align with Bhutan’s economic interests.
2. India’s Greater Role in Management: Bhutan has alleged that India seeks a greater role in the management of joint venture hydro projects in Bhutan, sometimes compromising Bhutan’s interests.
3. Cross-Border Trade of Electricity (CBTE): Initiatives like CBTE issued by India’s power ministry could establish India as Bhutan’s sole power market, limiting Bhutan’s options and potentially affecting its sovereignty in managing its energy resources.
4. Environmental Concerns: Hydropower projects, while economically beneficial, are often associated with environmental concerns that need to be addressed.

Steps Taken to Boost Relations:

1. High-Level Visits: Frequent visits by state heads from both countries aim to strengthen bilateral relations and enhance cooperation.
2. Development Assistance: India has announced assistance for various developmental projects in Bhutan, such as the establishment of an E-Project covering all the districts of Bhutan.
3. B2B Initiative: Prime Minister Modi introduced the concept of ‘Bharat to Bhutan’ (B2B) to emphasize building effective and renewed bilateral relationships between the two countries.
4. Foreign Aid: Bhutan has become the largest beneficiary of India’s foreign aid, demonstrating India’s commitment to supporting Bhutan’s development.
5. Military Cooperation: India maintains a significant military presence in Bhutan, with the Indian Military Training Team (IMTRAT) permanently based in western Bhutan to train the Royal Bhutan Army. This cooperation enhances bilateral security ties between the two countries.

Overall, while challenges exist in the realm of hydropower projects, both India and Bhutan are taking proactive steps to strengthen their relationship across various sectors, including development, diplomacy, and defense.

The way ahead for India-Bhutan relations can be outlined as follows:

1. Maintain Strong Relations: India should prioritize maintaining and strengthening its historically close relationship with Bhutan, considering it as essential as the relationship between milk and water.
2. Complete Hydropower Projects: India should expedite the completion of hydropower projects in Bhutan, addressing any financial constraints that may have caused delays.
3. Counter China’s Influence: Given China’s attempts to expand its influence in Bhutan, India should work to bolster its relationship with Bhutan as a counterbalance. Strengthening ties will help mitigate China’s strategic calculations in Bhutan.
4. Enhance Connectivity: Improving connectivity between Bhutan and India’s North Eastern states is crucial for regional economic development. Investments in infrastructure projects and trade facilitation measures will contribute to this objective.
5. Shared Prosperity: India should align its economic development goals with Bhutan’s philosophy of Gross National Happiness, aiming for shared prosperity between the two countries. This approach will foster mutual understanding and long-term cooperation.

By focusing on these aspects, India can continue to foster a robust and mutually beneficial relationship with Bhutan, contributing to regional stability and development.

India and Sri Lanka

The relationship between India and Sri Lanka has been multifaceted, marked by both cooperation and occasional tensions. Here’s a brief overview:

1. Historical Sympathies and Economic Cooperation: Despite sympathies from some Indian leaders towards the Tamil population in Sri Lanka, the Indian government maintained friendly relations with Sri Lanka. Both countries developed mutually beneficial economic and trade ties over the years.
2. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): Sri Lanka’s support for the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), a forum for countries not aligned with any major power bloc, aligned with India’s own foreign policy objectives. This shared stance contributed to diplomatic solidarity between the two nations.
3. Ethnic Conflicts and Tamil Issue: The Tamil-Sinhalese riots of 1958 highlighted the ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka, particularly between the Sinhalese majority and the Tamil minority. India’s sympathy towards the Tamil population occasionally strained relations with Sri Lanka, especially when some Indian leaders openly supported Tamil grievances.
4. Internal Matters and Diplomatic Stance: Despite sympathies towards the Tamil minority, India generally maintained a stance of non-interference in Sri Lanka’s internal affairs. This diplomatic approach aimed to respect Sri Lanka’s sovereignty while also addressing concerns about Tamil welfare through diplomatic channels.
5. Military Alliances and Neutrality: Sri Lanka’s decision not to join any military alliance, aligning with India’s own preference for neutrality in international military blocs, contributed to a stable regional dynamic. This mutual commitment to non-alignment helped prevent military tensions between the two countries.

Overall, while India and Sri Lanka have faced challenges related to ethnic tensions and occasional diplomatic differences, their shared commitment to economic cooperation, non-alignment, and respect for sovereignty has generally fostered a stable and constructive relationship.

The civil war in Sri Lanka, which lasted from 1983 to 2009, was a complex and tragic conflict rooted in ethnic tensions between the Sinhalese majority and the Tamil minority. Here’s an overview of the background and history of the civil war:

1. Ethnic Composition: Sri Lanka is home to two major ethnic groups, the Sinhalese, who are predominantly Buddhist, and the Tamils, who are primarily Hindu. The Tamils are concentrated in the Northern and Eastern provinces of the country.
2. Historical Grievances: Ethnic tensions between the Sinhalese and Tamils date back to the colonial period and were exacerbated by policies favoring the Sinhalese majority. This included the disenfranchisement of Indian Tamil plantation workers in 1949 and the passage of the “Sinhalese Only Act” in 1956, which made Sinhala the sole official language, marginalizing the Tamil-speaking population.
3. Constitutional Discrimination: The 1972 Constitution of Sri Lanka further entrenched discrimination against Tamils by favoring the Sinhalese language and Buddhist religion. These policies contributed to feelings of marginalization and alienation among the Tamil community.
4. Formation of LTTE: In response to perceived discrimination and oppression, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), commonly known as the Tamil Tigers, was formed in 1976. The LTTE sought to fight for Tamil rights and establish an independent Tamil state in the Northern and Eastern provinces of Sri Lanka.
5. Outbreak of Civil War: The civil war erupted in 1983 when a violent anti-Tamil pogrom, known as “Black July,” occurred in response to an attack on Sinhalese soldiers by Tamil militants. This event marked the beginning of a protracted and brutal conflict between government forces and the LTTE.
6. Conflict Escalation: The civil war saw numerous human rights abuses, including massacres, forced disappearances, and displacement of civilians. Both sides engaged in acts of violence and terrorism, leading to widespread suffering and loss of life.
7. International Involvement: The civil war attracted international attention and involvement, with various countries and organizations attempting to mediate and facilitate peace negotiations between the Sri Lankan government and the LTTE. However, efforts at conflict resolution were often hampered by the intransigence of both parties.

The civil war in Sri Lanka came to a decisive end in 2009 when government forces defeated the LTTE militarily. However, the legacy of the conflict continues to impact Sri Lankan society, with issues of reconciliation, accountability, and ethnic tensions still unresolved.

India’s role in the Sri Lankan civil war and its aftermath had significant implications for both countries:

1. Indo-Sri Lankan Accord (1987): India intervened in the conflict by brokering the Indo-Sri Lankan Accord, which aimed to address the Tamil minority’s grievances through political means. The accord proposed the establishment of a provincial council system and devolution of power, as outlined in the Thirteenth Amendment to the Sri Lankan Constitution.
2. Deployment of Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF): India deployed the IPKF to Sri Lanka as part of Operation Pawan to enforce the Indo-Sri Lankan Accord and maintain peace. However, the IPKF’s mission faced significant challenges and ultimately failed to defeat the LTTE. The operation also resulted in the assassination of Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi by a LTTE suicide bomber.
3. Withdrawal of IPKF: Following two years of military engagement, the IPKF was withdrawn in 1990 due to its inability to achieve its objectives and growing opposition from the Tamil population. The withdrawal strained relations between India and Sri Lanka.
4. Reconstruction and Rehabilitation: After the end of the civil war in 2009, India pledged support for the reconstruction and rehabilitation of war-torn areas in Sri Lanka. India initiated various assistance programs aimed at rebuilding infrastructure and promoting reconciliation among ethnic communities.
5. Diplomatic Relations: India’s voting against Sri Lanka at the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) resolutions in 2009, 2012, and 2013, which called for investigations into alleged human rights violations, strained bilateral relations. This stance was influenced by domestic political considerations, particularly the sentiments of pro-LTTE factions in Tamil Nadu.
6. Humanitarian Assistance: Despite India’s efforts to provide humanitarian assistance and support post-war reconstruction, political factors, including pressure from Tamil Nadu, hindered the effective implementation of these initiatives. This led to tensions between the central government in India and the Sri Lankan government.

Overall, India’s involvement in the Sri Lankan civil war and its aftermath reflects the complexities of regional dynamics, ethnic tensions, and domestic politics. While India sought to promote peace and stability in its neighbor, its actions also faced challenges and had consequences for bilateral relations between the two countries.

India-Sri Lanka relations are characterized by strong cultural and trade ties, with cooperation in various areas:

Cultural Relations:

1. People of Indian Origin (PIOs): There are various Indian communities settled in Sri Lanka, engaged in business ventures and contributing to the local economy. These communities organize festivals and cultural events, fostering cultural exchange between the two countries.
2. Cultural Cooperation Agreement: India and Sri Lanka have signed agreements to promote cultural cooperation, facilitating exchanges of cultural troops and promoting awareness of Indian culture through initiatives like the Indian Cultural Centre in Colombo.
3. Buddhism: Buddhism serves as a connecting link between India and Sri Lanka on religious grounds, further enhancing cultural ties.
4. Education: India offers scholarship slots annually to deserving Sri Lankan students, promoting educational cooperation between the two countries.
5. Tourism: India is the largest source of market for Sri Lankan tourism, with tourism serving as an important link between the two countries.

Trade Relations:

1. FTA and Trade Relations: Sri Lanka is India’s second-largest trading partner in SAARC, with a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) signed in 1998 facilitating increased trade between the two countries.
2. Investments: India is among the top investors in Sri Lanka, with cumulative investments exceeding US$ 1 billion since 2003. Direct investments from India contribute to economic development and growth in Sri Lanka.
3. Economic and Technological Cooperation Agreement (ETCA): The proposed ETCA aims to facilitate trade in services, investments, and technological cooperation between India and Sri Lanka. It is expected to boost economic ties further by integrating Sri Lanka’s production facilities into the Indian and international value chain.

Overall, cultural and trade cooperation between India and Sri Lanka plays a crucial role in fostering mutual understanding, economic growth, and development in both countries.

India and Sri Lanka have encountered several issues and conflicts in their bilateral relations:

Strategic Issues:

1. Chinese Influence: Sri Lanka’s growing favoritism towards China over India has led to the influx of Chinese funds and the initiation of major infrastructure projects in the country, including the construction of ports and collaboration in satellite launching activities.
2. India’s Countermeasures: India has responded by abstaining from voting on certain UNHRC resolutions against Sri Lanka, fostering closer strategic ties with the signing of a civil nuclear cooperation agreement, and engaging in infrastructure development projects in Sri Lanka’s Northern and Eastern provinces. India is also planning to develop the Trincomalee Port as a counterbalance to Chinese developments at the Hambantota Port.

Fisherman Problem:

1. Fishing Disputes: Fishing disputes, particularly illegal fishing by Indian fishermen in Sri Lankan waters, have been a persistent concern. Sri Lanka regularly arrests Indian fishermen for crossing the International Maritime Boundary Line (IMBL), while India detains Sri Lankan fishermen for illegal fishing.

Katchatheevu Island:

1. Territorial Dispute: India ceded the uninhabited Katchatheevu Island to Sri Lanka in 1974, leading to disputes over fishing rights. While the central government recognizes Sri Lanka’s sovereignty over the island as per the 1974 accord, Tamil Nadu claims it falls under Indian territory, citing historical fishing rights.

Conclusion: Despite these challenges, India and Sri Lanka share common cultural and security interests in the South Asian region. India’s responsibility to ensure peace and stability in its neighborhood necessitates active engagement with Sri Lanka. Both countries need to address each other’s concerns and work together for mutual benefit. India’s support for Sri Lanka is crucial for its aspirations in the Indian Ocean region and for its pursuit of permanent membership in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC). Moving forward, India and Sri Lanka need to foster a relationship based on mutual respect and cooperation.

FAQs

1. What is the historical relationship between India and Sri Lanka?

India and Sri Lanka share a deep historical and cultural relationship dating back centuries. Both countries have intertwined histories, with influences from Indian civilizations such as the Tamils, Cholas, and the spread of Buddhism from India to Sri Lanka. Trade, cultural exchanges, and migrations have further strengthened ties between the two nations over time.

2. What are the key aspects of India-Bhutan relations?

India and Bhutan share a unique and close relationship characterized by cooperation in various sectors, including hydropower, trade, education, and defense. India has played a significant role in Bhutan’s development, providing assistance in infrastructure projects and socioeconomic development. The two nations also share cultural affinities, with people-to-people contacts fostering a strong bond between them.

3. How does India contribute to Nepal’s development?

India-Nepal relations are characterized by extensive people-to-people contacts and shared cultural and historical ties. India has been a major partner in Nepal’s development, providing assistance in various sectors, including infrastructure, healthcare, education, and capacity building. The open border and close economic ties further enhance bilateral cooperation between the two nations.

4. What are the main areas of cooperation between India and Sri Lanka?

India and Sri Lanka cooperate in various fields, including trade and investment, defense and security, culture, and tourism. Both countries have signed several bilateral agreements to enhance cooperation in areas such as maritime security, counter-terrorism, and economic development. India is also one of Sri Lanka’s largest trading partners and a significant source of tourism.

5. How does India support Bhutan’s sustainable development goals?

India supports Bhutan in achieving its sustainable development goals through various initiatives, including assistance in renewable energy projects, environmental conservation, and capacity building. India’s support in hydropower development has been crucial for Bhutan’s economic growth and energy security. Additionally, India collaborates with Bhutan in areas such as healthcare, education, and technology transfer to promote sustainable development in the country.

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