UPSC NCERT Notes - Ancient History

The Sangam age is considered to have lasted from 300 BC to AD 300. It constitutes an important chapter in the history of South India.

The three empires that ruled the South of India during the Sangam age were the Cholas, Cheras, and the Pandyas.

The period roughly between the third century BC and AD third century in South India is known as the Sangam period. The first detailed description of the South Indian states is found in Sangam literature.

Table of Contents

Sources of Sangam Age

Sources of Sangam age are as follows:

Literary Sources

The sources that define the history of the Sangam age are Tolkappiyam, Ettuthogai/Ettuthogal, and Pattupattu. Among these, Tolkappiyam was the earliest.

During the post-Sangam period, the Pathinenkilkanakku, or the 18 minor works was composed. The twin epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai also belonged to the post-Sangam period. All these literatures help us to know the society, economy, and culture of the ancient Tamils.

Archaeological Sources

The archaeological sources for the Sangam period are limited in number. They may be classified into Epigraphy, Excavations, and Coins.

Epigraphy

The Ashokan Edicts mention the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms.
The Hathigumpha Inscription of the Kalinga king, Kharavela, also references the three Tamil Kingdoms.

Tirupparankundrum inscriptions mention the gifting of cave beds to Jain monks, while Arnattar Hills’ inscriptions from the 1st century AD provide information about the Chera kings.

Excavations

Robert Bruce Foote conducted the first excavations at Adhichanallur, revealing numerous iron, bronze, and gold articles depicting ancient Tamil life.
Mortimer Wheeler excavated Arikkamedu near Pondicherry, discovering Roman pottery, glass bowls, gems, and coins, confirming Roman-Tamil commercial contacts during the Sangam age.
A Buddhist Vihara found at Kilaiyur near Kaveripoompattinam dates to the post-Sangam period.
Other significant excavation sites include Uraiyur, Kanchipuram, and Kodumanal.

Underwater Archaeology

Modern archaeologists conducted underwater excavations near Poompuhar, revealing a shipwreck that sheds light on Sangam period history.

Coins

Tamil Kings issued limited gold and silver coins during the Sangam period. However, Roman gold and silver coins are widespread in Tamil Nadu, confirming trade relations.

Foreign Accounts

Greek and Roman writers, such as Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy, offer insights into the society and economy of Sangam Tamils.
Sri Lankan Buddhist accounts, Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa, also provide valuable evidence.

Three Sangams

According to Tamil legends, three Sangams existed in ancient Tamil Nadu, supported by the Pandyas.
The first, held at Madurai, was attended by gods and sages.
The second, at Kapatapuram, saw the destruction of literary works except for Tolkappiyam.
The third, at Madurai, produced voluminous literature, with only a few surviving works.
While considered mythical by some due to discrepancies in traditional dates, these Tamil literary works remain crucial for understanding the Sangam age.

The Early Kingdoms

In the 1st century AD, three states emerged under the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in the southernmost part of the Indian peninsula.
The collective term for the three ancient kingdoms, Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas, was Tamilakha, or the Tamil Realm.
The form of government during the Sangam period was a Hereditary Monarchy. Each dynasty had a unique royal emblem: Tiger for the Cholas, Fish for the Pandyas, and Bow for the Cheras.

Brief Description of the Chola, Chera, and the Pandya Kingdom

Kingdoms	Present Day Regions	Capitals	Significant Rulers	Major Titles of the King	Major Ports
Chola	Upper Tamil Nadu	Uraiyur, Puhar	Karikala	Sennis, Sembiyas, Valavan and Killi	Kaveripattanam
Chera	Kerala	Vanji	Cheran Senguttuvan	Vanavar, Villavar, Kudavar, Kuttuvar, Poralyar	Musiri, Tondi
Pandya	Southern Tamil Nadu	Madurai	Nedunche-liyan	Kavuriyar, Korkai, Panchavar, Kaveri Tennar, Seliyar, etc.	Muchiri,

The Chola Kingdom

Known as Cholamandalam or Coromandal, the Chola kingdom occupied the Northeastern part of the Pandyas’ territory, situated between the Pennar and Velur rivers.
The political epicenter of the Cholas was Uraiyur, renowned for its cotton trade.
In the mid-second century BC, Chola king Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled for nearly 50 years.
The kingdom’s true foundation was established in the 2nd century AD by the renowned king Karikala, who founded the city of Puhar and constructed a 160 km embankment along the Kaveri River.
Pattinappalai, authored by Kadiyalur Uruttirangannanar, vividly portrays the life and military achievements of Karikala, a significant Chola ruler.
Under Karikala’s rule, trade and commerce flourished, accompanied by the construction of irrigation tanks along the Kaveri River to facilitate farming on reclaimed land from the forest.
The Great Battle of Venni, near Thanjavur, saw Karikala defeating a coalition of rulers, led by Cheras and Pandya kings.
Karikala’s naval strength was formidable, leading to the conquest of Sri Lanka, while Puhar, identified as Kaveripattanam, served as the thriving Chola capital for trade and commerce.
The decline of the Chola kingdom ensued with weak successors to Karikala and attacks from neighboring Cheras and Pandyas.

Chera Kingdom:

Also known as Keralaputras, the Cheras were situated to the West and North of the Pandya kingdom, with their capital at Vanji or Karur, covering modern Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Udiyanjeral, an early Chera ruler, earned his title from serving both armies in the Kurukshetra war.
Pugalur inscriptions from the first-century reference three generations of Chera kings, with Musiri and Tondi as crucial seaports.
Romans stationed regiments in the Chera region, specifically at Muziris (modern Cranganore), safeguarding their trade interests and even building a temple of Augustus.
Senguttuvan, the most prominent Chera king, earned the title “The Red or Good Chera.” His conquests extended beyond the Ganga, invading Northern India.
Senguttuvan’s military exploits, chronicled in the epic Silapathikaram, recount his Himalayan campaign where he triumphed over numerous rulers from Northern India. Notably, he is credited with constructing a Temple of Kannagi, the Goddess of chastity, and establishing the renowned Pattini cult. Additionally, he earned historical significance by being the first to dispatch an ambassador from South India to China.

Pandya Kingdom:

The Pandya Kingdom is centered around Madurai.
Sangam literature and Megasthenes’ accounts mention the rule of Pandyas, with one text highlighting a female ruler.
Flourishing trade ties with the Roman Empire included sending embassies to Roman Emperor Augustus.
Pandyan kings were noted for Vedic sacrifices, with Mudukudumi as one of the earliest rulers.
Nedunjeliyan, a prominent Pandya king, accused Kovalan of theft, leading to the city of Madurai facing a curse from Kannagi. The Pandyas embraced the Vedic religion and supported Brahmin priests. Their power waned with the Kalabhras tribe invasion.

Minor Chieftains:

Beyond the major Tamil kingdoms, local chieftains known as Velirs ruled various parts of Tamil Nadu.
Sangam literature extensively details Velir leaders like Pari, Kari, Ori, Malayan, Elini, Pegan, Aay, and Nalli, with the Seven Patrons or Kadaiyelu Vallalgal being the most renowned.
These chieftains generously supported Tamil poets, contributing to the cultural vibrancy during the Sangam age.

Sangam Administration:

The Sangam literature sheds light on the administration during this period, highlighting a monarchy system.
The king referred to as Vendan, Ko, and Irai, held vast powers, seen as a representative of God.
The king balanced conquest with responsibilities for the people’s welfare, law, and justice, celebrated annually on his birthday (Perunal).
Sangam rulers such as Karikalan, Manu Needhi Cholan, and Porkai Pandyan were known for impartial justice.
Officials included Amaichar (Ministers), Purohitar (Priests), Thuthar (Envoys), Senapatiyar (Army Commander), and Orrar (Spies).

Military Administration:

A well-organized military structure existed, with each ruler having a regular army comprising chariots, elephants, cavalry, and infantry.

Revenue Administration:

Land revenue and customs duty on foreign trade were key sources of state income.
The royal treasury was supplemented by tributes from feudatories and war booty.
Roads and highways were actively maintained and guarded to prevent robbery and smuggling.

Provincial and Local Administration:

The entire Sangam kingdom was referred to as Mandalam, with major Mandalams such as Chola Mandalam, Pandya Mandalam, and Chera Mandalam.
Beyond Mandalam, there was a significant division known as Nadu (province).
Nadus were typically administered by hereditary chiefs.
Villages served as the fundamental units of administration, overseen by local assemblies called Manrams.
Ur, described variably as a big village (Perar), a small village (Sirur), or an old village (Mudur), functioned as a town.

Social Life:

The society had divisions between Brahmins and Non-Brahmins, with Tamil Brahmins forming a respected and learned community, often living separately. Many kings treated them with great courtesy.
Trade was common among Vaishyas and Villas. Learning, agriculture, and performing sacrifices were considered the prescribed duties of a Vaishya.
The practice of untouchability was present, and those considered untouchables were known as Parriyas.
Sangam society was regarded as advanced and civilized, emphasizing education as a widespread social activity.
Tolkappiyam referred to the five-fold division of lands: Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal), and Palai (desert).
Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas, and Vedars coexisted during this period.

Position of Women:

The status of women in Sangam society was unequal compared to men, despite women enjoying various freedoms. Women poets like Avaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished during this period.
Polygamy was prevalent in society, and prostitutes and dancing girls lived in urban areas and towns, commanding respect.
Female ascetics belonging to Buddhist or Jain traditions, such as Kaundi Adigal and Manimekalai, were present. A large number of courtesans also played roles in society.
Arundhati, a character in Sanskrit literature, served as a model for South Indian women during the Sangam age. The worship of Kannagi (the Chaste Lady) was an early institution and an extension of the worship of the Goddess of Chastity.

Food and Dress Traditions:

The staple food during this period was rice. Food habits varied based on economic status, with other chief articles including grain, meat, and milk products.
Grain was dried and turned into flakes called Aval. A luxury food item was the rice cake soaked in milk, known as Apupa or Appam.
Dressing traditions varied based on social status, with wealthy individuals wearing silk and fine cotton garments.
The middle class and common people generally wore two pieces of cloth made of cotton. Both men and women adorned themselves with a variety of ornaments made of gold, silver, pearls, and precious stones.
Women in the society were particular about their hairstyles, often adorning them with flowers like jasmine and lotus.

Economic Life:

The Sangam economy was largely self-sufficient, with agriculture being the primary occupation.
Chief crops included rice, cotton, millet, sugarcane, pepper, ginger, turmeric, cardamom, and cinnamon.
Land was categorized as Vanpulam (non-agrarian) and Menpulam (Agrarian). Ulavar and toluvare were referred to as tillers of Menpulam.
Irrigation methods like tank irrigation (ayam) and minor dam (Sinai) were employed.

Land tax, known as Karai, was a common and significant source of revenue, but the specific share claimed and collected by the king was unspecified.

Measures of land included Ma and Veli, while Kalam was considered a measure of grain.
Variyam, a well-known unit of territory yielding tax, had an officer called a Variyar in charge of tax collection.
Tolls and custom duties were referred to as Ulgu or Sungum, and duties paid to the king were generally known as Kadamai or Paduvadu.
The barter system was prevalent as a medium of exchange, and Pattinam served as a center for long-distance trade.
Weaving, ship-building, metalworking, carpentry, rope-making, ornament-making, ivory product crafting, tanning, etc., were widely practiced handicrafts.
The marketplace was known as Avanam, and craft and industry thrived due to increased demand in overseas markets.
Taniyurs, developed from major Brahmadeyas and temple settlements, included several hamlets and revenue villages.
Eripatti, a special category of land, contributed revenue for the maintenance of the village tank.

Foreign Trade:

Foreign trade occurred between South India and Hellenistic kingdoms such as Egypt, the Arabian Peninsula, and the Malay Archipelago.
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea provided valuable information about trade between India and the Roman Empire.
Leading ports during the Sangam period included Naura, Tyndis, Muzuris, and Nelcynda.
Exports to the Roman Empire included pepper, pearls, ivory, silk, spike-nard, precious stones, and tortoiseshell.
Silk, a significant export, was considered highly valuable, with the Roman Emperor Aurelian declaring it worth its weight in gold.
The Romans sent a large number of gold and silver coins to India and exported items like Amphorae wine and red glazed Arretine-ware to India, found at Arikamedu (modern-day Puducherry).

Religious Life:

Religious practices were influenced by rituals and animism, with a planted log of wood called Kandu serving as an object of worship.
Brahmanism gained popularity in Sangam kingdoms, particularly in the northern part of India, and kings performed Vedic Yajnas.
A special festival dedicated to the Vedic God Indra was instituted in Puhar.
Deities like Korravai (Goddess of Victory) and Murugan were worshipped.
Three strands of religion, marked off from each other, were discernible during the Sangam period:
- Indigenous gods and systems of worship
- Exotic Hindu Gods and systems of worship
- Exotic non-Hindu religious faiths and functions.

Sangam Literature

The age of Tamil literature, often referred to as Sangam literature, holds a special place as Tamil stands out as the oldest among the spoken literary languages of South India.
This literary tradition delves into secular subjects related to public and social activities, encompassing themes such as government, war, charity, trade, worship, and agriculture.

Notable poets and thinkers from the Sangam era include Tolkappiyar, Tiruvalluvar, Ilango Adigal, Sittalai Sattanar, Nakkirar, Kapilar, Paraner, Auvaiyar, and Mangudi Marudanar.

The Sangam literature can be broadly categorized into two groups: narrative and didactic, offering a unique secular perspective with major themes revolving around love, revenge, and poetry.

Earliest Tamil Works

Tolkappiyam: The oldest surviving Tamil grammar, written by Tolkappiyar (one of the 12 disciples of sage Agastya). It is divided into three major parts, each consisting of nine years (sub-parts), totaling 1612 sutras.
Pattupattu (Ten poems): The poetry in Pattupattu is classified into two main groups: Aham (dealing with matters strictly limited to subjective experiences like love) and Puram (dealing with matters capable of externalization or objectification).
Works like Murugarruppadai (by Nakkirar), Sirupanarruppadai (by Nattanar), Perumbanarruppadai, Maduraikkanji (by Mangudi Marudam), Pattinappalai (by Kannan), and others fall under the category of Pattupattu.
Ettutogai: A collection of eight anthologies, including Aingurunuru, Agananuru, Narrinai, Kuruntogai, Purananuru, Kalithogai, Paripadal, and Padirruppattu.

Pathinenkilkanakku (Eighteen Minor Works)

These works, considered minor due to their shorter form, include the significant Tirukkural by Tiruvalluvar, known as the Bible of the Tamil land.
Tirukkural combines elements of Dharmashastra, Arthashastra, and Kamasutra. Translated into English by Dr. A. Dakshinamurthy in 2010, these works primarily focus on morals and ethics.

The Epics

The epics Silappadikaram (The Jewelled Anklet) and Manimekalai belong to the early centuries of the Christian era.
Silappadikaram: Written by Ilango Adigal in the 2nd century AD, it narrates the tragic story of Kovalan, a merchant from Puhar, who falls in love with the dancer Madhavi, leading to revenge by his wife Kannagi. The epic initiates the Kannagi cult, venerating Kannagi as the true wife.
There is also a reference to the Ceylonese king Gajabahu being present on the occasion of the installation of a Kannagi Goddess in the temple, by Chera king Senguttuvan.
Manimekalai: Penned by poet Sattanar, this epic continues the story of Manimekalai, daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi.

The primary aim of this epic is to showcase the excellence of the Buddhist religion through the painful life of Manimekalai due to the loss of the city, Puhar. It stands as an essential ancient work providing a glimpse into the development of fine arts in the Sangam age.

Art Forms

Among the Sangam people, poetry, music, and dance held prominent positions.
Monarchs, chieftains, and the nobility generously rewarded poets for their contributions.
Two singing bards, Panar and Viraliyar, graced the royal courts, showcasing mastery in traditional tunes and dances. Music and dance flourished as highly developed arts during the Sangam period.

Various groups of performers included:

Thudian players, skilled in the use of the thudi, a small percussion instrument.
Paraiyan is responsible for beating maylam (drums) and performing kooththu, a dance-based stage drama, along with proclaiming the king’s announcements.
Muzhavan, who played the muzhavu, a wind instrument, signaling the start and end of the day and battlefield victories for the army. They also participated in kooththu performances alongside other artists.
Kadamban, adept at playing a large bass-like drum, the kadamparai, and blowing a long bamboo instrument, kuzhal, theri thuthi (similar to the present naagasuram).
Paanan, responsible for singing songs in all pann tunes (specific tunes for each landscape) and mastering the yaazh, a stringed instrument with a wide frequency range.
These talented individuals, along with poets (pulavar) and academic scholars (saandror), emerged from diverse backgrounds, showcasing their skills regardless of their native professions.

End of Sangam Age

The Sangam period gradually declined towards the end of the 3rd century AD. For nearly two and a half centuries, the Kalabhras occupied the Tamil land.
Limited knowledge exists about the Kalabhra reign, during which Jainism and Buddhism gained prominence.
The Pallavas in Northern Tamil Nadu and the Pandyas in Southern Tamil Nadu eventually ousted the Kalabhras, establishing their rule.

Prelims Facts

Tolkappiyam was a Tamil text based on – Grammar [Nagaland PSC (Pre) 2014]
The story of the transformation of a dancing girl into a Buddhist nun is narrated in – Manimekalai [IAS (Pre) 2002]
In Sangam literature, the fertile agricultural land was called by which name? – Marutham [UPPSC (Pre) 2014]
The Sangam flourished at different places. Which places were associated with the three Sangams? – Madurai and Kapatapurm [IAS (Pre) 2004]
The Manimekalai that conveys the story of a merchant is composed by whom? – Sithalai Sattanar [UPPSC (Pre) 2014]
The philosophy ‘Tirrukkural’ was written by – Tiruvalluvar [UPPSC (Pre) 2014]
Information about which king is found in the Kuruspal Inscription? – Someshwar [CGPSC (Pre) 2020]
The Eastern Indo-Aryan language of Halbi is related to which language family? – Aryan [CGPSC (Pre) 2018
The collection of the writings of the Saivite Saints is considered as fifth Veda. What is the name of the above collection? – Tirumurai [JPSC (Pre) 2021]
Which port was known as poduke to the author of ‘The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea’? – Arikamedu [UPPSC (Pre) 1997]
The ‘Dakshinmurti’ idol of Shiva depicts him in which form? – Teacher [UPPSC (Pre) 2013]
The name of the poet Kalidasa is mentioned in which inscription? – Aihole inscription [IAS (Pre) 1994)
The Sage who is said to have Aryanised South India was- – Agastya [JPSC (Pre) 2012]
The First translator of Mahabharata into Tamil was- Perunduanar [IAS (Pre) 1999]
Which Tamil text has been called ‘Laghuveda’? – Kural [UPPSC (Pre) 2013]
Which poet of the sangam age has referred to a Mauryan expedition against a Tamil Chieftain? – Mamulanar IIAS (Pre) 2001]

UPSC NCERT Practice Questions

1. During the Sangam period, Kon, Ko, and Mannan are the synonyms of RAS/RTS (Pre) 2010

(a) the Prime Minister

(b) the Finance Minister

(d) the King

2. Udiyanjiral belongs to which dynasty? UKPSC (Pre) 2022

(a) Chera dynasty

(b) Pandyas dynasty

(d) Satavahana dynasty

3. Which Chola king was known as ‘Arumolivarman’ before his coronation? WBCS (Pre) 2022

(a) Vira Rajendra

(b) Rajaraja I

(d) None of them

4. The royal insignia of the Chera dynasty was IAS (Pre) 2007

(a) Bow

(b) Fish/Carp

(d) Elephant

5. A king of South India sent an ambassador to the kingdom of Rome in 26 BC to which dynasty did he belong? MPPSC (Pre) 2005

(a) Chola

(b) Chera

(d) Chalukya

6. Consider the following statements. IAS (Pre) 2003

1. The Cholas defeated Pandya and Chera rulers and established their domination over peninsular India in the early medieval times.

2. The Cholas sent an expedition against the Sailendra empire of South-East Asia and conquered some of the areas.

Which of these statements) is/are correct?

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

7. Consider the following events in the history of India. IAS (Pre) 2020

1. Rise of Pratiharas under king Bhoja.

2. Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman I.

3. Establishment of Chola power by Parantaka I.

4. Pala dynasty founded by Gopala.

What is the correct chronological order of the above events, starting from the earliest time?

(a) 2, 1, 4, 3

(b) 3, 1, 4, 2

(d) 3, 4, 1, 2

8. With reference to ancient South India, Korkai, Poompuhar, and Muchiri were well known as IAS (Pre) 2023

(a) capital cities

(b) ports

(d) shrines of Jain Tirthankaras

9. From the excavations of which ancient site, information has been gathered regarding brisk trade relations between India and Rome during the early centuries of the Christian era. UPPSC (Pre) 2003

(a) Madurai

(b) Tamralipti

(d) Arikamedu

10. State who amongst the following were the poets of the Sangama literature. MPSC (Pre) 201)

1. Tolakappiya

2. Valluvar

4. Sittalaisittanur

3. Ilango Adigal

Codes

(a) 1, 2 and 3

(b) 2, 3 and 4

(d) All of these

11 Which one of the following statements about Sangam literature in ancient South India is correct?

IAS (Pre) 2021

(a) Sangam poems are devoid of any reference or culture.

(b) The social classification of Varna was known to Sangam poets.

(d) Sangam literature refers to magical forces as irrational.

Know Right Answer

1 (d)

2 (a)

3 (b)

4 (a)

5 (c)

6 (c)

7 (c)

8 (b)

9 (d)

10 (d)

11 (b)

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q: What is the significance of the Sangam Age in ancient Indian history?

A: The Sangam Age, approximately ranging from 300 BCE to 300 CE, holds great significance in ancient Indian history. It is characterized by the flourishing of Tamil literature and the establishment of three Sangams (academies of poets) in the Tamil region. This period witnessed the creation of some of the oldest extant Tamil literature, providing insights into the socio-political and cultural aspects of ancient South India.

Q: Who were the major rulers during the Sangam Age?

A: The Sangam Age was marked by the rule of three dynasties: the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas. These dynasties were prominent in the Tamil region, and they played crucial roles in shaping the political landscape during this period. The Sangam literature provides valuable information about the patronage extended by these rulers to poets and scholars.

Q: What were the economic features of the Sangam Age?

A: The economy of the Sangam Age was primarily agrarian. Agriculture, trade, and commerce were integral to the economy. The region had a well-developed irrigation system, and trade connections were established with distant lands, including the Roman Empire. The Sangam texts depict a society with a thriving economy based on agriculture, animal husbandry, and trade.

Q: How did social life evolve during the Sangam Age?

A: The Sangam Age society was characterized by a division based on occupational activities. The society was broadly classified into five groups known as ‘Panchamas’ – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras, and Atiyars. The Sangam literature provides insights into the social customs, rituals, and the status of women during this period. Women enjoyed a relatively higher status, and there are references to women poets and scholars.

Q: What are the key contributions of the Sangam Age to literature and culture?

A: The Sangam Age is renowned for its rich literary contributions. Sangam literature is classified into two categories – Ettuthogai (eight anthologies) and Pattupattu (ten idylls). Poems from this period celebrate love, war, nature, and provide glimpses into the daily life and ethos of the people. The Sangam poets made significant contributions to Tamil grammar and poetics, leaving a lasting impact on the cultural heritage of South India.

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UPSC NCERT Notes – Ancient History – The Sangam Age