One-party dominance, a phenomenon where a single political party consistently holds power over an extended period within a democratic system, has profound implications for the functioning of governance and the dynamics of political competition. This phenomenon often emerges from a combination of historical legacies, institutional structures, and socio-political factors. The genesis of one-party dominance can be traced back to various catalysts, including ideological appeal, charismatic leadership, or societal cleavages. As such, understanding the inception of one-party dominance requires a nuanced examination of the interplay between these multifaceted factors. This dominance can significantly shape the political landscape, influencing policy-making processes, electoral dynamics, and even societal norms. Thus, delving into the origins of one-party dominance sheds light on the complexities inherent in democratic systems and the mechanisms through which power is consolidated and maintained.
Dominance of Congress (1947-1977)
Background:
- Electoral Success of Congress: In the initial three general elections after Independence, the Congress party achieved overwhelming success. They won three-quarters of the seats, although they did not secure half of the total votes cast.
- Long-standing Dominance: For the first three decades following Independence, the Congress party held a dominant position in the Lok Sabha, making it the largest party.
- Unchallenged Rule till 1977: The dominance of the Congress in Indian politics remained unchallenged until the 1977 General Election.
- Global Context: India’s experience of one-party dominance is not unique. Similar situations have been witnessed in other parts of the world. However, what sets India apart is that it maintains democratic values and norms despite this dominance.
- International Examples: In some countries like China, Cuba, and Syria, their constitutions allow only a single party to govern. In others such as Myanmar, Belarus, Egypt, and Eritrea, effective one-party rule was established through legal and military measures.
Nature of Congress Dominance:
- Legacy of Freedom Movement: The Congress party, with its strong organizational network rooted in the freedom struggle, had a natural advantage in the early post-independence period. Its deep connections with the masses were a result of years of dedicated work during the freedom movement.
- Inclusivity: The Congress, during the freedom movement, adopted an inclusive approach, welcoming members from all segments of society. This practice continued after independence, allowing it to represent diverse class, regional, and sectional interests.
- Ideological Coalition: The Congress was a broad ideological coalition, encompassing a wide range of perspectives from revolutionary to conservative, from extremist to moderate. This ideological diversity was a source of strength rather than a weakness, serving as a balancing mechanism within the party.
- Congress System: In the early years of electoral politics, the Congress played the dual roles of both the ruling party and the opposition. This unique situation led political scientist Rajni Kothari to term this period “The Congress system.”
Conclusion:
- 1980-89: Congress Dominance Returns: After a brief period of opposition, the Congress returned to power in 1980 under the leadership of Indira Gandhi and later Rajiv Gandhi in 1984, securing overwhelming majorities.
- Post-1989: However, after the loss in the General Election of 1989, the Congress was unable to form a majority government. It marked the beginning of a new phase in Indian politics, with the Congress no longer enjoying unchallenged dominance. Since then, the Congress has not formed a majority government.
Emergence of Opposition Parties:
Background:
- During the period of Congress dominance, opposition parties had limited representation in the Lok Sabha and State assemblies. Despite this, they played a crucial role in upholding the democratic character of the system.
- Opposition parties provided principled criticism of Congress policies, preventing discontent with the system from turning anti-democratic.
- In the early days of Indian democracy, there was mutual respect between the Congress and opposition leaders. This was reflected in the inclusion of opposition leaders in the interim and post-independence governments.
- In 1977, the Janata Government, led by Morarji Desai, formed the first non-Congress government. While it lasted only two years, it broke the Congress’s long-standing dominance.
- The emergence of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) also played a significant role in balancing the political landscape and challenging the dominance of the Congress.
Emergence of Opposition Parties:
Socialist Party:
- The foundation of the Socialist Party was laid before independence with the formation of the Congress Socialist Party (CSP) in 1934 by leaders within the Congress seeking a more radical and egalitarian approach.
- After independence, the Congress party changed its rules regarding dual membership, leading CSP members to form a separate Socialist Party in 1948.
- The socialists advocated for democratic socialism, which set them apart from both the Congress and the communists.
- They criticized Congress for allegedly favouring capitalists and landlords at the expense of the working class and peasants.
- In 1955, when the Congress declared its goal to be the establishment of a socialist pattern of society, the Socialist Party found itself in a dilemma. Leader Ashok Mehta offered limited cooperation with the Congress in this context.
- The split and union of various factions led to the emergence of parties like the Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party, the Praja Socialist Party, and the Samyukta Socialist Party.
- Prominent leaders of the Socialist Party included Jayprakash Narayan, Rammanohar Lohiya, Achyut Patwardhan, Ashok Mehta, Acharya Narendra Dev, and S.M. Joshi.
- In contemporary times, parties like the Samajwadi Party, the Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), Janata Dal (United), and Janata Dal (Secular) trace their origins to the Socialist Party.
Bhartiya Jan Sangh (BJS):
- The BJS was formed in 1951 by Shyama Prasad Mukherjee and traced its roots to organizations like the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and the Hindu Mahasabha before independence.
- It emphasized the idea of one country, one culture, and one nation, believing that India could become modern, progressive, and strong based on its cultural traditions.
- Key leaders of the BJS included Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya (who initiated the concept of integral humanism), and Balraj Madhok.
- The BJS performed well in almost all Lok Sabha elections.
- In contemporary times, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) traces its roots back to the BJS.
Relation with RSS:
- The BJS was a creation of the RSS and remained under the latter’s tight ideological and organizational control since its inception.
- The RSS was keen on persuading the government to lift the ban on their organization, and they provided both the working cadres and leaders for the BJS.
Ideas:
- The party supported a mixed economy, regulation of large-scale industries, nationalization of key industries, and service cooperatives in the rural sector, but these were largely formal positions.
- In its early years, the Jan Sangh argued for the reunification of India and Pakistan in pursuit of its central objective of Akhand Bharat (Undivided India).
- The party raised the slogan of ‘one country, one culture, one nation’.
- Initially, it favoured Sanskritized Hindi and opposed the retention of English as an official link language of India. However, it later accepted English along with Hindi as long as the non-Hindi states wanted this.
- The Jan Sangh forcefully opposed the Hindu Code Bill and, after its passage, pledged to repeal this legislation.
- It did not take up any religious issues other than the legal ban on cow slaughter.
- The Jan Sangh consistently accused secular parties of appeasing Muslims.
Communal Aspects of Jan Sangh (BJS):
- The party’s popular slogans and ideologies were often influenced by communal considerations.
- The admission of Muslims into the party was viewed by its leaders and members as a mere formality and technicality rather than a genuine integration.
- The Jan Sangh’s political success reached its peak in 1967 when it won 35 seats. However, the party struggled in South India and lost its political influence in West Bengal after the passing of Shyama Prasad Mukherjee.
Communist Party of India (CPI):
- The CPI emerged in the backdrop of various communist groups advocating socialism in the 1920s, inspired by the Bolshevik revolution in Russia.
- Initially, the communists worked within the Congress fold, but they distanced themselves when they supported the British in World War II.
- The party had a well-organized and dedicated cadre with a strong machinery to run the political party.
- Initially, the communists believed in violent uprisings, as they doubted the genuineness of the transfer of power. However, they shifted their approach and began participating in general elections, eventually emerging as the second-largest opposition party.
- The CPI’s support was concentrated in states like Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, and Kerala.
- Prominent leaders of the CPI included K. Gopalan, S.A. Dange, E.M.S. Namboodiripad, P.C. Joshi, Ajay Ghosh, and P. Sundarayya.
- The CPI faced a split in 1964, leading to the formation of the CPI (Marxist) by the pro-China faction.
- Over time, the base of both parties has significantly diminished, with their presence concentrated in a few states of the country.
Swatantra Party:
- The Swatantra Party was established in August 1959 following the Nagpur resolution of the Congress party, which called for policies like land ceilings, state control over the food grain trade, and the promotion of cooperative farming. The Swatantra Party disagreed with this resolution.
- This party advocated for limited government involvement in the economy. It opposed the development strategy of state intervention, central planning, nationalization, and the dominance of the public sector. They also opposed progressive tax regimes and demanded the dismantling of the license Raj.
- The party was critical of the non-alignment policy and India’s friendly relations with the Soviet Union. Instead, it advocated for closer ties with the United States.
- The Swatantra Party received support from industrialists and large landowners. However, it had limited influence and lacked dedicated cadres, which affected its performance.
- Prominent leaders of the Swatantra Party included Rajagopalachari, K.M. Munshi, N.G. Ranga, and Minoo Masani.
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP):
- The BJP’s origins can be traced back to the formation of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh in 1951 by Shyama Prasad Mukherjee.
- In 1977, the Jana Sangh merged with several other parties to create the Janata Party. The Janata Party succeeded in defeating the incumbent Congress party in the 1977 general elections. However, after three years in power, the Janata party dissolved in 1980.
- Members of the erstwhile Jana Sangh reconvened to form the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in 1980, and from there, it emerged as a dominant force in Indian national politics.
- The BJP formed its first government in 1996, securing 161 Lok Sabha seats. However, this government was unable to attain a majority, resulting in its resignation after 13 days.
- In the subsequent elections in 1998, the BJP led a coalition known as the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), which included allies like the Samata Party, the Shiromani Akali Dal, and the Shiv Sena. The NDA secured a majority, and Atal Bihari Vajpayee returned as Prime Minister.
- The NDA government lasted its full term of five years, with a policy agenda that included a more assertive approach to defence and terror, as well as neo-liberal economic policies.
- In 2004, the BJP-led NDA government was defeated in the general elections.
- In 2014, the BJP emerged victorious under the leadership of Narendra Modi, securing a majority in the Lok Sabha.
Prominent Leaders: Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Lal Krishna Advani, Jaswant Singh, Pramod Mahajan, Narendra Modi.
Coalition Era/Coalition Politics:
- Background:
- In the early years after independence, the Congress party held a dominant position, enjoying an overwhelming majority and widespread popularity. It remained in power at both the central and state levels from 1947 to 1967, maintaining a monolithic character.
- However, the emergence of robust regional parties and the politicization of various social groups seeking a share in power marked a significant transition in Indian politics. This shift made coalition governments an inevitability at the federal level.
- Beginning of Coalition Politics in India:
- After the passing of leaders like Nehru and Shastri, the Congress party began to lose its mandate as a force for social and institutional change. People grew discontented with reports of corruption and the lavish lifestyles of party members.
- In the 1967 general elections, a wave of anti-Congress sentiment began to build. The elections saw a convergence of opposition parties, signalling the start of an era marked by short-lived coalition governments and a rise in defections.
- Coalition governments were established in all opposition-ruled states, except for Tamil Nadu. Even within Congress, coalition governments were formed in some states.
- The 1967 elections also introduced the term “Aya Ram Gaya Ram” to describe leaders frequently switching parties, particularly notable in Haryana where defections became prominent.
- Between 1967 and 1970, nearly 800 assembly members switched parties, with 155 of them being rewarded with ministerial positions. This period of transition also brought about significant changes in the balance of power within the Congress Party.
1977 Elections and the Janata Government:
- Background:
- The period of Emergency (1975-77) and the JP (Jayaprakash Narayan) movement played a crucial role in the downfall of the Congress Government at the Centre in the 1977 General Elections.
- Formation of Government:
- A majority of opposition parties united to form the Janata Party, which emerged victorious in the 1977 elections. Here is a breakdown of the constituent groups and their representation:
- Jana Sangh: 94 MPs, 11 Ministers
- Bhartiya Lok Dal: 71 MPs, 12 Ministers
- Congress (O): 50 MPs, 10 Ministers
- Socialist Party: 28 MPs, 4 Ministers
- CFD (Congress for Democracy): 28 MPs, 3 Ministers
- Ex-Congressmen (Chandra Shekhar group): 5 MPs, 2 Ministers
- Others (Including Akali Dal, etc.): 25 MPs, 2 Ministers
- Collapse of the Janata Coalition:
- The Janata Coalition quickly fell apart, facing internal strife and external pressures. The thirst for power and positions led to its downfall in July 1979. Factors contributing to the collapse included widespread defections and the withdrawal of support by groups like Akali Dal and other regional parties.
- According to K. Advani, the Janata Party’s internal divisions and lack of party discipline played a significant role in its demise. The government also faced criticism for ineffective governance.
- Subsequent Governments:
- Following the collapse of the Janata Government, India saw another short-lived coalition government under Charan Singh. However, this government too had a brief tenure.
- For nearly a decade after these coalition governments, India returned to having a stable one-party government led by the Congress. The experiences with the earlier coalitions left many dissatisfied with their performance.
Era of Constant Coalition Governments (1989-2014):
- Background:
- After a decade of stable governance by the Congress, the political landscape shifted in the late 1980s. The 1989 elections saw the Congress Party’s defeat, but no single party secured a clear majority in the Lok Sabha. This marked the end of Congress’s dominance over the Indian political system and ushered in an era of multi-party politics.
- Multi-Party System:
- The emergence of a multi-party system meant that no single party had a clear majority in any Lok Sabha election from 1989 until the BJP gained a majority in 2014.
- Empowerment of Marginalized Groups:
- The 1990s witnessed the rise of powerful parties and movements representing Dalit and backward castes, giving a voice to historically marginalized communities.
- Coalition Politics:
- During this phase, India witnessed the formation of various coalition governments:
- National Front (1989): Formed in 1989, it was a coalition government that brought together various regional parties.
- United Front (1996, 1997): The United Front emerged as a coalition government in 1996 and again in 1997.
- NDA (1997): The National Democratic Alliance was formed in 1997, led by the BJP.
- BJP-led Coalition (1998): The BJP led a coalition government in 1998.
- NDA (1999): The National Democratic Alliance returned to power in 1999.
- UPA (2004, 2009): The United Progressive Alliance came into power in 2004 and secured another term in 2009.
- Throughout this phase, the formation of any government was contingent on the participation or support of multiple regional parties, highlighting the significance of coalition politics in India.
FAQs
Q: What is one-party dominance?
A: One-party dominance refers to a political system where a single political party consistently holds a significant majority of seats in the legislature or maintains control over the government for an extended period.
Q: How does one-party dominance typically emerge?
A: One-party dominance can emerge through various factors such as historical circumstances, institutional advantages, charismatic leadership, effective governance, or suppression of opposition parties.
Q: What are some potential advantages of one-party dominance?
A: Advantages may include stability in governance, the ability to enact long-term policies without significant opposition, streamlined decision-making processes, and continuity in leadership.
Q: What are the potential drawbacks of one-party dominance?
A: Drawbacks may include a lack of political competition leading to complacency or corruption, limited avenues for dissent and diverse representation, reduced accountability, and the stifling of political innovation.
Q: How can societies address concerns related to one-party dominance?
A: Society can address concerns through electoral reforms to promote multi-party competition, strengthen democratic institutions and checks and balances, foster a robust civil society, ensure media freedom, and promote political participation and civic education.
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