Indira Gandhi – First Phase (1966-77) – Development in Political System – UPSC Post-Independence Notes

Indira Gandhi, a towering figure in Indian political history, embarked on her transformative journey as Prime Minister during a period of significant flux in the country’s political landscape. Ascending to power in 1966, she ushered in what would be termed as the “First Phase” of her tenure, a period stretching until 1977 marked by both remarkable development and tumultuous upheavals. At the helm of a nation grappling with socio-economic challenges and political complexities, Gandhi navigated the intricacies of governance with an assertive hand, leaving an indelible mark on India’s political system. During this phase, she implemented bold reforms, confronted opposition, and reshaped the contours of power, setting the stage for a tumultuous yet dynamic era in Indian politics.

Indira Gandhi’s Leadership and Achievements:

1. Transformational Leadership: Indira Gandhi is remembered as one of India’s most powerful leaders. She played a pivotal role in reshaping the socio-political and economic landscape of India during her tenure.
2. Socio-Political Reforms: Her leadership saw significant strides in various sectors including agriculture, technology, social security, and poverty eradication. She worked towards realizing the goals outlined in the Directive Principles of State Policy in the Indian Constitution.
3. Elevating India’s Global Standing: Indira Gandhi’s tenure also saw India’s international prestige rise significantly. She played a key role in establishing India as a prominent player on the world stage.
4. Tenure as Prime Minister: Indira Gandhi served as India’s Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977 and then again from 1980 until her assassination in 1984. Her tenure was marked by both significant achievements and controversial decisions.
5. Election and Leadership Struggles: After the untimely demise of Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1966, there was a competition for leadership within the Congress party. Indira Gandhi emerged as the party’s leader, though the decision was not unanimous. This election showcased the democratic process within the party.
6. Controversies and Challenges: Indira Gandhi’s leadership was not without controversy. Her decision to impose a state of emergency in 1975, which lasted for nearly two years, remains a contentious period in Indian political history.
7. Economic Policies: During her tenure, Indira Gandhi pursued policies aimed at economic self-reliance. This included nationalization of key industries, banks, and insurance companies.
8. Foreign Policy: Indira Gandhi played a significant role in shaping India’s foreign policy, including the handling of relationships with neighboring countries and participation in international forums.
9. Legacy: Indira Gandhi’s legacy is complex, with supporters lauding her for her decisive leadership and critics pointing to authoritarian tendencies. Her contributions to Indian politics and society continue to be a subject of extensive analysis and debate.

Overall, Indira Gandhi’s leadership left an indelible mark on India’s history, with a range of policies and decisions that continue to influence the country’s trajectory.

Challenges Faced by Indira Gandhi:

1. Economic Deterioration: When Indira Gandhi took office, India faced economic challenges due to successive wars and drought conditions. The country’s economic condition was further exacerbated.
2. General Elections in 1967: Indira Gandhi had to face the general elections in 1967, just a year after becoming Prime Minister. The economic hardships and discontent among the public posed a significant challenge for her.
3. Shrinking Support Base: The Congress party’s support base was gradually diminishing due to economic and social problems. The 1967 elections saw a reduced majority for the Congress party in the Lok Sabha.
4. Discontent and Economic Stagnation: Rising prices, unemployment, economic stagnation, and a food crisis contributed to widespread discontent among the public.
5. Devaluation of Rupee: Indira Gandhi’s agreement to the devaluation of the rupee led to hardships for businesses and consumers. Additionally, an attempt to import wheat from the United States faced political disputes.
6. Shift towards Socialist Policies: Indira Gandhi gradually started moving towards socialist policies, amplifying principles from the Nehruvian consensus.
7. Nationalization and Centralization: Indira Gandhi’s economic strategy included the nationalization of 14 major banks in 1969 to extend formal financial services to the poor. The government’s control over the economy through measures like the ‘License Raj’ became highly centralized.
8. Rise of Regional Parties and Movements: The period witnessed the rise of regional political parties and movements like the Naxalbari Movement, particularly in states like West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh. Economic crisis and an inequitable agrarian structure contributed to these developments.
9. Questioning Congress’s Efficacy: The Congress party’s loss of majority in many states after the 1967 elections raised questions about the party’s effectiveness and functioning. Leaders were contemplating strategies for the revival and strengthening of the Congress.
10. Introduction of Kamaraj Plan: K Kamaraj, then National President of the Congress party, proposed the Kamaraj Plan in 1963 as a means to rejuvenate and attract young leaders into national politics.

Indira Gandhi faced a formidable array of challenges during her tenure, which required her to navigate through a complex socio-political and economic landscape. Her policies and decisions during this period would leave a lasting impact on India’s development trajectory.

Political Developments During Indira Gandhi’s Tenure:

1. Leadership Crisis after Shastri’s Death: After the death of Lai Bahadur Shastri, Congress faced a leadership crisis. Two factions emerged – one supporting Indira Gandhi (backed by the Syndicate) and the other led by Morarji Desai.
2. Congress Split (1967): The division in the Congress party culminated in a split in 1967. Supporters of Indira Gandhi identified themselves as the Indian National Congress (R), while those opposing her leadership formed the Indian National Congress (O).
3. Congress Right vs. Congress Left: The party was already divided into Congress Right (supported by old guards and syndicates) and Congress Left (backers of Indira Gandhi). The adoption of a radical Ten Point Program further widened the gap between the two wings.
4. Presidential Election Controversy: The disagreement over the choice of Presidential candidate after Zakir Hussain’s death led to a significant rift between Morarji Desai and Indira Gandhi. Desai eventually left the party.
5. Support for V.V. Giri: Indira Gandhi supported V.V. Giri for the Presidential election, leading to a confrontation with the Syndicate-backed candidate. She called for a ‘Conscience Vote,’ allowing members to vote freely. Giri was elected as the President.
6. 1971 Elections and Victory: In the 1971 elections, Indira’s Congress (R) won a decisive majority, and her popularity surged after India’s victory in the war against Pakistan.
7. Grand Alliance Against Indira: For the 1971 elections, opposition parties formed a coalition called the “Grand Alliance” to challenge Indira Gandhi, but it did not have a significant impact.
8. Indira’s Assertive Leadership: Indira Gandhi, as Prime Minister, chose her own trusted advisors and sought to diminish the influence of the Syndicate. This marked a shift towards more assertive leadership.

Indira Gandhi’s tenure as Prime Minister was marked by intense political maneuvering and significant shifts within the Congress party. Her ability to navigate these challenges played a crucial role in shaping India’s political landscape during this period.

Emergence of a Multi-Party System:

1. Challenges to Congress Dominance (1957): In the 1957 elections, the Congress faced challenges in various regions. While it remained strong in northern India, it encountered opposition in Orissa from Ganatantra Parishad, and in Bombay province from groups like Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti and Mahagujarat Parishad. The DMK’s success in Madras also posed a threat in southern India.
2. Congress Defeat in Kerala (1957): In Kerala, the Congress faced a significant defeat and was relegated to the position of the second-largest party. The CPI won 9 seats compared to the Congress’ 6 out of 18 parliamentary seats. The CPI, with independent support, formed the government in the state assembly.
3. 1962 Elections: The Congress’ voting percentage declined in the 1962 elections, leading to a reduction in its seats to 361 out of 496 parliamentary seats. The communists, Swatantra Party, and DMK also made gains.
4. Watershed Elections of 1967: The 1967 elections marked a turning point in India’s political landscape. The Congress faced a significant setback, winning 284 seats out of 520 in the Lok Sabha.

The elections of 1967 were pivotal in shifting India from a single-party dominant system to a more diverse, multi-party political landscape. This transformation brought about a greater diversity of political ideologies and parties, leading to increased competition and a more pluralistic political environment.

Reasons for the Decline of Congress:

1. Internal Issues within the Party:
   • Corruption and Factionalism: The Congress party experienced increasing corruption, factionalism, and a hunger for official positions among its leaders. This eroded the party’s image as a force for social and institutional change.
   • Ineffectual Handling by the Syndicate: After Nehru’s death, the Syndicate (a group of powerful party leaders) did not effectively manage internal party matters. Ticket distribution, for instance, was often influenced by their personal interests, leading to dissatisfaction and defections.
2. Formation of Anti-Congress Fronts:
   • Opposition Alliances: Opposition parties, including the Socialist Party and Jana Sangh, formed alliances against the Congress. These coalitions united to challenge the dominance of the Congress.
3. Defection of Rich and Middle-Class Peasants:
   • Impact of Land Reforms: The implementation of land reforms in the early 1950s and other policies like food grain policies and political awareness among landless individuals were perceived as a threat by the affluent and middle-class peasants. They saw these policies as potentially undermining their newfound economic and social status.
   • Control over Rural Vote Bank: These rich and middle-class peasants held significant influence over the rural vote bank and had the resources to mobilize support, including through their agricultural laborers.
4. Rise of Regional Parties:
   • Regional Aspirations: The emergence of regional parties was a response to the growing aspirations of various states and linguistic communities. Parties like the DMK in Madras (now Tamil Nadu) and Akali Dal in Punjab gained prominence as they championed regional causes.

These factors collectively contributed to the decline of the Congress party’s dominance in Indian politics, giving rise to a more pluralistic political landscape characterized by increased competition from regional and opposition parties.

Impact of the Multi-party System:

(a) Era of Coalition Governments: The elections of 1967 marked the beginning of an era of coalition governments. This trend became the norm, especially after the elections of 1984. Coalition governments became prevalent in most Opposition-led states, and this continued until recent times. In 2014, for the first time since 1984, a single party gained a majority.

(b) Politics of Defection: The proliferation of political parties led to a practice known as “horse trading,” where politicians would switch parties for various reasons. This created instability in governments. To address this issue, the government enacted anti-defection laws to discourage such practices.

(c) Rise of Regional Parties: Regional parties gained significant prominence. They formed governments in various states, highlighting the growing influence of regional aspirations in Indian politics.

(d) Empowerment of Rich and Middle-Class Peasants: The policies and political shifts led to an increase in the influence of affluent and middle-class peasants in Indian politics. They became significant players in the rural social, economic, and political spheres.

(e) Shifts in Congress Power Dynamics: The balance of power within the Congress party underwent significant changes. The influence of the Syndicate waned, while the position of Indira Gandhi was strengthened. This shift in power dynamics within the party had far-reaching implications for Indian politics.

These impacts collectively transformed the political landscape of India, ushering in an era of greater diversity and complexity in political alignments and alliances. Regional parties gained prominence, and the dynamics of coalition politics became a defining feature of Indian democracy.

The era of coalition governments that began with the 1967 elections had several significant characteristics:

1. End of Congress Monopoly: The 1967 elections marked the end of Congress’s dominance in many states. Instead of one party ruling, various parties, groups, and independent candidates came to power, creating a more diversified political landscape.
2. Multiplicity of Parties: Instead of a single party, a multitude of political entities emerged as contenders for power. This diversity led to the formation of coalition governments, as no single party could secure a majority on its own.
3. Instability and Short Tenures: Most coalition governments, regardless of whether they were led by Congress or the opposition, were characterized by their short-lived tenures. They faced internal tensions and constant strains due to the diverse composition of the coalition partners.
4. Tensions and Internal Struggles: Due to the heterogeneity of the coalition partners, tensions and internal struggles were common. This made it difficult for these governments to function effectively and maintain stability.
5. Government Changes and Topplings: Parties, including Congress, were involved in frequently changing governments. They would form alliances, topple existing governments, and shift alliances to create new governments. This dynamic led to a sense of political instability.
6. Periods of President’s Rule: In between governments, some states would experience periods of President’s Rule, where the central government temporarily took over the administration of the state. This was often a result of the inability of political parties to form a stable government.
7. Mid-term Polls with Little Change: Occasionally, states would hold mid-term elections, but these seldom resulted in significant changes to the political landscape. The pattern of seats in the assembly remained largely consistent.

Overall, this period was marked by political fluidity, frequent changes in government, and a lack of long-term stability. The diversity of political parties and their shifting alliances became defining features of Indian politics during this era.

The politics of defections was a significant feature of Indian politics during this period. Here are some key points regarding this phenomenon:

1. Defections and Floor Crossings: Many changes in government occurred due to defections or floor crossings by individual legislators. This involved members switching their allegiance from one party to another, often driven by personal gains or political opportunities.
2. Regional Coalitions: Regional parties formed coalitions based on local issues and concerns. These parties were seen as better equipped to understand and address the specific needs of their respective regions.
3. Corruption and Horse-Trading: Some legislators engaged in corrupt practices, including horse-trading, where they would exchange political loyalties for personal gain, such as positions of power or financial incentives.
4. Aaya Ram and Gaya Ram: In Haryana, defection became so common that defecting legislators earned the nicknames “Aaya Ram” (in-coming Ram) and “Gaya Ram” (out-going Ram), highlighting the frequency with which politicians changed parties.
5. Breakdown of Party Discipline: With widespread defections, party discipline eroded, making it challenging for political parties to maintain a unified front.
6. Impact on Elections: The 1967 elections led to a large number of defections. Between 1967 and 1971, over 142 Members of Parliament (MPs) and around 1900 Members of Legislative Assemblies (MLAs) switched parties, leading to significant shifts in political allegiances.
7. Anti-Defection Law: It took nearly two decades from the onset of this phenomenon for India to address the issue. In 1985, the 52nd amendment of the Constitution introduced the Tenth Schedule, which contained provisions for the disqualification of members on the grounds of defection.
8. JP Movement and Janata Government: The Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) movement played a pivotal role in opposing the government during the Emergency. This movement, along with widespread public discontent, led to the formation of the Janata Party government in 1977. This government was a coalition of various parties with differing ideologies, marking a significant shift towards coalition politics at the national level.

Overall, the politics of defections had a profound impact on the stability of governments and party dynamics during this period. It eventually prompted the introduction of the anti-defection law to address this issue.

Jayaprakash Narayan, often referred to as JP, was a prominent figure in Indian politics during the 1970s. His “Total Revolution” was a comprehensive vision for bringing about significant changes in various aspects of Indian society and governance. Here’s an overview of his Total Revolution:

1. Social Revolution: JP aimed to establish equality and brotherhood within society. This included addressing issues related to caste discrimination, economic disparities, and social injustices.
2. Economic Revolution: JP advocated for the decentralization of the economy, with a focus on empowering villages as the units of development. He sought to reduce economic inequalities and promote a more equitable distribution of resources.
3. Political Revolution: JP’s vision involved putting an end to political corruption. He emphasized decentralization in politics, giving more power and decision-making authority to the public. This was seen as a means to counter the concentration of power in the hands of a few.
4. Cultural Revolution: JP aimed to defend and rejuvenate Indian culture. This included efforts to preserve and promote traditional values and practices among the general populace.
5. Educational Revolution: JP advocated for an education system that was linked to occupations. He believed that education should be tailored to equip individuals with practical skills relevant to their chosen professions.
6. Spiritual Revolution: This aspect of Total Revolution focused on the development of moral and spiritual values in society. It aimed to shift emphasis away from materialism towards a more spiritually oriented way of life.
7. Thought Revolution: JP sought to bring about a revolution in the way people think. This involved encouraging critical thinking, fostering a sense of responsibility, and promoting a mindset oriented towards positive change.

JP’s Total Revolution was a comprehensive approach to addressing the various challenges facing Indian society and governance. It aimed to bring about transformative changes in social, economic, political, cultural, educational, spiritual, and intellectual spheres. While some aspects of his vision were implemented, the broader Total Revolution remained a powerful rallying cry for change during a crucial period in Indian history.

The period discussed highlights a crucial and tumultuous phase in Indian politics, marked by significant events like the Emergency and the rise and fall of the Janata Government.

During the early 1970s, the Indian government under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi pursued a series of left-of-centre policies. Here are some key actions taken:

1. Nationalization of General Insurance (August 1972): The government took control of the general insurance industry, thereby creating a state monopoly in this sector. This was aimed at ensuring wider coverage and control over the insurance industry.
2. Nationalization of Coal Industry (January 1973): The government took over the management and control of the coal industry. This step was seen as a move towards consolidating control over key sectors of the economy.
3. Restrictions on Urban Land Ownership: Measures were introduced to restrict the ownership of urban land. These policies aimed to curb speculative land transactions and control the distribution of urban land.

These actions were part of the broader ideological framework of Indira Gandhi’s government, which sought to implement socialist policies. They were in line with the government’s vision of reducing economic disparities and ensuring that the benefits of development were more evenly distributed among the population.

However, these policies also generated debates and discussions about the appropriate role of the government in the economy and the potential impact on private enterprise and entrepreneurship. They were also a significant factor in the political landscape leading up to the JP Movement and the eventual imposition of the Emergency in 1975.

The period was indeed a crucial phase in Indian history, marked by a combination of economic challenges, political discontent, and regional conflicts. Here are some key points summarizing the events and policies:

1. MRTP Act and Commission (1971): The Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices (MRTP) Act of 1969 was implemented through the establishment of the MRTP Commission in 1971. This aimed to prevent the concentration of industrial power and wealth in a few hands.
2. Food Distribution and Rural Employment Programs: The government initiated programs to provide affordable food grains to economically disadvantaged sections of society. Additionally, efforts were made to generate employment opportunities in rural areas.
3. Bank Branch Expansion and Credit Accessibility: Nationalized banks were mandated to establish branches in underserved areas, including small towns, rural regions, and economically weaker sections of cities. They were also tasked with providing credit to small businesses, farmers, transporters, and independent contractors.
4. Prohibition on Political Donations by Corporations: Joint-stock companies were prohibited from making political donations, with the aim of reducing the influence of business interests in politics.
5. Nuclear Test at Pokhran (1974): India conducted an underground nuclear test at Pokhran in May 1974, showcasing significant advancements in science and technology. The government, however, declared that this was for peaceful purposes and emphasized India’s commitment to non-proliferation.
6. Economic Challenges and Budget Deficit: The Bangladesh War in 1971, along with the responsibility of accommodating millions of refugees, strained the country’s resources. This resulted in depleted grain stocks, a significant budget deficit, and reduced foreign exchange reserves.
7. JP Movement (1974): The JP (Jayaprakash Narayan) Movement of 1974 was a significant expression of political discontent. It reflected the growing disillusionment with the state of affairs in India.
8. Outbreak of Emergency (1975): The culmination of various challenges, discontent, and political developments led to the declaration of a state of Emergency in 1975, a period of suspended civil liberties and centralized authority.

These events laid the foundation for a complex socio-political landscape that had long-lasting impacts on India’s political trajectory. They also set the stage for the challenges that followed, including the Punjab crisis in the 1980s.

Highlights a confluence of economic challenges, natural disasters, and political discontent that significantly impacted India. Here’s a summary of the events and their consequences:

1. Drought and Food Shortages (1972-73): A severe lack of monsoon rains in 1972 and 1973 led to a widespread drought, causing a significant shortage of food grains. This led to an increase in food prices and impacted the livelihoods of millions.
2. Impact on Power Production: The drought also adversely affected power production. Coupled with the decline in agricultural output, there was a reduction in consumer demand for manufactured goods, leading to an industrial downturn and increased unemployment.
3. Global Oil Shock (1973): The global oil shock of 1973, where the price of crude oil quadrupled, had far-reaching effects. This led to a sharp increase in the cost of petroleum-based products and fertilizers, further straining the economy.
4. Depletion of Foreign Reserves and Budget Deficit: The combination of factors, including the drought, rising food prices, and the oil shock, depleted foreign exchange reserves. This, in turn, widened the budget deficit and exacerbated the economic downturn.
5. Industrial Discontent and Strikes (1972-74): The economic challenges, high unemployment, and rising prices led to widespread industrial discontent. This culminated in a wave of strikes across various regions, including an all-India railway strike in May 1974.
6. Political Impact and Discontent with Congress: Corruption and an inability to effectively handle political crises at the state and local levels eroded the political influence of the Congress party. This resulted in three key social groups distancing themselves from Congress:
   • Middle class: Discontent over price increases and corruption turned the middle class against Congress.
   • Wealthy peasantry: Concerns over land reforms led the prosperous peasant class to oppose Congress.
   • Capitalists: The discussions on socialism, nationalization of banks and coal mines, and anti-monopoly legislation caused the capitalist class to turn against Congress.

These events not only had immediate economic and social repercussions but also set the stage for the political movements and changes that followed, including the JP Movement and the declaration of Emergency.

FAQs

Q: What were the key political developments during Indira Gandhi’s first phase as Prime Minister (1966-1977)?

A: During this period, one significant development was the emergence of Indira Gandhi as a dominant political figure. She led the Indian National Congress to a decisive victory in the 1971 general elections, capitalizing on her populist policies and the success of the Bangladesh Liberation War.

Q: How did Indira Gandhi’s leadership style impact the political system during her first phase as Prime Minister?

A: Indira Gandhi adopted a centralized leadership style, concentrating power within the Prime Minister’s Office (PMO). This led to a more personalized form of governance, with decisions often being made at her discretion rather than through collective cabinet processes.

Q: What were some of the major challenges to the political system during Indira Gandhi’s first phase in office?

A: One of the significant challenges was the growing opposition to Indira Gandhi’s regime, both from within her own party and from opposition groups. This culminated in the declaration of Emergency in 1975, suspending civil liberties and centralizing power further.

Q: How did the political landscape evolve in terms of opposition parties and alliances during this period?

A: Opposition parties, particularly socialist and conservative factions, gained momentum against Indira Gandhi’s government. They formed alliances to challenge her authority, with notable figures like Jayaprakash Narayan leading mass movements against her regime.

Q: What were the lasting effects of Indira Gandhi’s policies on the political system during her first phase in power?

A: Indira Gandhi’s policies during this period, including the imposition of Emergency and the centralization of power, had lasting effects on the political landscape. They led to debates on the balance between executive authority and democratic principles, shaping India’s political discourse for years to come.

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