The Age of Three Empires, spanning from the 8th to the 10th century, was a crucial period in Indian history marked by the dominance of three powerful dynasties: the Palas, Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas. The Palas, ruling primarily in Bengal and Bihar, achieved notable cultural and intellectual advancements, with their capital at Vikramashila becoming a renowned center for learning. The Pratiharas, centered in northwestern India, were formidable rulers who successfully resisted Arab invasions and maintained stability in the region. Meanwhile, the Rashtrakutas, based in the Deccan, established a vast empire with their capital at Manyakheta. This era witnessed significant cultural, architectural, and economic developments, exemplified by the construction of magnificent temples and advancements in science and art. The tripartite competition and cooperation among these empires contributed to the rich tapestry of medieval Indian history.
PRATIHARAS
Pratiharas belonged to the Gurjara tribe that migrated from Central Asia. Initially, they served as pratiharas (doorkeepers) hence, they are called Gurjara Pratiharas. They ruled over some territories in northern India with Kanauj as capital.
- Mihirabhoja (9th century)
He was the greatest ruler of this dynasty. His conquests were recorded in the Gwalior inscription. An Arab traveller Sulaiman visited his kingdom in 851 and praised him as the greatest ruler.
- Mahipala (10th century)
Rajasekhara, a great Sanskrit scholar was the court poet of Mahipala, wrote many kavyas such as:
Karpuramanjari
Kavyamimamsa
Bhuvanakosha
Haravilasa
Viddasalabhanjika
- Rajyapala (11th century)
When Mahmud of Ghazni raided Kanauj in 1018 Rajyapalar ran away.
PALAS
Palas ruled over Bihar and Bengal for more than three-centuries. Their initial capital was Pataliputra which was later shifted to Monghyr in Bihar. They patronised Vajrayana Buddhism and were the last of the Indian rulers to patronise Buddhism.
- Gopala:
He was the founder of the Pala dynasty. According to sources available he was elected by the people to end matsyanyava (fish law) prevailing in Bengal.
- Dharmapala:
Dharmapala was the greatest king of the Pala dynasty. He founded many Vajrayana Buddhist Universities in Bihar, Important among them are:
Vikramashila University
Oddantapuri University
Somapura University
Jagaddala University
- Devapala:
Devapala was another famous king of the Pala dynasty. Vajradatta a Buddhist poet patronised by him, wrote a book named Lokeswarashataka.
According to Devapala’s Nalanda copper plate inscription, he granted five villages as an endowment to the Nalanda vihara built by Balaputradeva, the ruler of Java (Indonesia).
- Rampala
Sandhyakara Nandi, the court poet of Ramapala, in his book Ramacharitha discussed the revolt of Kaivarta peasants which was suppressed by Ramapala.
- Madanpala
He was the last king of the Pala dynasty. An officer named Vijayasena ended the Pala dynasty by killing Madanapala, and founded the Sena dynasty.
Rashtrakutas
The Rashtrakuta was the mighty imperial dynasty that ruled Deccan for more than two centuries and established their supremacy almost over the entire Indian subcontinent. They not only earned greatest victories but also contributed much to the cultural and architectural heritage of India. They built most splendid rock-cut caves at their capital Ellora. A total of 34 rock-cut caves were hewn out of Sahyadri Mountains at Ellora which belong to Hindu, Buddhist and Jain religions.
- Dantidurga
Dantidurga was the founder of this dynasty. He was earlier the incharge of a Rashtra during Badami Chalukyan rule. He ended Badami Chalukyan rule and captured the throne.
He constructed two cave temples namely Dasavatara (Vaishnava) and Ravan ka khai (Shaiva) at Ellora.Ravan ka Khai got it name because of the sculpture of Ravan shaking Mount Kailasa depicted on the wall of this cave temple. He performed Hiranyagarbha yaga signalising his victory over Malwa.
- Krishna-I
Krishna-I built a magnificent rock-cut monolithic temple at Ellora which is known as Kailasanatha Temple (Cave no-16). It was carved out of the Sahyadri Mountain and was an imitation of Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchi. It is considered as the greatest rock-cut temple in the world. More than one million metric tons of rock was carefully cut in order to create this temple. It took 100- 150 years for completion and the sculptors of six to seven generations worked for this temple. It was recognised by UNESCO as a World Heritage Center.
- Amoghavarsha:
Amoghavarsha was the greatest ruler of the Rastrakuta dynasty. He had a very long reign of more than six decades. He built a city named Manyakheta (present-day Malkhed in Karnataka), and moved the capital from Ellora to Manyakheta. He was a distinguished author in Sanskrit and Kannada literature. He got the title of “Kaviraja”. He wrote two books namely:
- Kavirajamarga- On Poetics and Grammar. It is the earliest book written in the Kannada.
- Prasnottara Ratnamalika- It is a Sanskrit book on Jainism.
| The following Sanskrit Jain poets enjoyed the patronage of Amoghavarsha Jinasena- He authoured “Adipurana” on Rishabhanatha the 1 Tirthankara. Saktayana- He was a Jain grammarian and wrote a book of grammar named Amoghavritti Mahaviracharya- He was a Jain mathematician and author of Ganitasara-sangraha |
Amoghavarsha offered his finger as a sacrifice to the Goddess Mahalakshmi of Kolhapur when a drought hit his empire. Amoghavarsha was a follower of Jainism and he performed Sallekhana by drowning himself in the holy waters of the Tungabhadra river.
An Arab traveler Sulaiman who visited the kingdom of Amoghavarsha described him as one of the four greatest emperors of the bhoja world.
- Krishna-III:
He was the last great ruler among the Rashtrakutas. He defeated Parantaka Chola in 949 at the Battle of Takkolam and gained the title of Tanjavurkonda. He marked this conquest by erecting a pillar of victory at Rameswaram
- Karka-11:
He was the last king of this dynasty. One of his vassals Tailapa assassinated him and founded Kalyani Chalukya dynasty.
Tripartite Struggle:
Significance of Kannauj:
- Kannauj, during the early medieval period, symbolized status and authority.
- Former capital of Harshvardhana’s empire, control over Kannauj represented political dominance in northern India.
- Strategic importance due to control over the resource-rich Central Gangetic valley and its connection to the Silk Road for trade and commerce.
Weak Kings and Desire for Plunder:
- Three weak kings ruled Kannauj between the 8th and 9th centuries: Indrayudha, Vijrayudha, and Chakrayudha.
- The vulnerability of these rulers attracted the Rashtrakutas, driven by the desire to plunder through warfare.
Tripartite Struggle – Phase I
Clash Between Pala, Pratihara, and Rashtrakuta:
- Tripartite Struggle initiated around 790 AD involving the Pala, Pratihara, and Rashtrakuta dynasties.
- Dharmapala clashed with Vatsaraja in the first phase at Prayag, resulting in Dharmapala’s defeat.
Rashtrakuta Intervention:
- Vatsaraja’s subsequent defeat by Rashtrakuta king Dhruva.
- Dharmapala regained Kannauj but faced defeat again at the hands of Dhruva.
- Rashtrakutas, devastated by a succession struggle after Dhruva’s death, withdrew, leaving Northern India vulnerable.
Pala Resurgence:
- Dharmapala exploited the situation, recovered Kannauj, and placed Chakrayudha on the throne.
- Through successful expeditions, Dharmapala established dominance in Northern India.
Tripartite Struggle – Phase II
Pratihara Resurgence:
- Nagabhatta II, successor of Vatsaraja, invaded Kannauj, overthrowing Chakrayudha.
- Inevitable clash between Nagabhatta II and Dharmapala ensued, resulting in Dharmapala’s defeat near Munger.
Rashtrakuta Intervention Again:
- Nagabhatta II’s short-lived victory as he was overthrown by Govinda III, successor of Dhruva.
- Govinda III left for the Deccan, leaving Kannauj contested.
Pratihara Victory:
- By the end of the 9th century, Pratiharas emerged victorious and established central India rule.
- The tripartite struggle weakened all three dynasties, contributing to the political breakdown and facilitating Middle Eastern Islamic invasions.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Q: Who were the major rulers of the Pala Empire during the Age of Three Empires?
A: The Pala Empire was primarily ruled by the powerful Pala dynasty, with notable rulers like Dharmapala and Devapala making significant contributions to its expansion and cultural development.
Q: What characterized the political landscape during the reign of the Pratiharas in the Age of Three Empires?
A: The Pratihara dynasty was known for its strong military prowess and control over a vast empire. Their rule was marked by strategic alliances, territorial conquests, and patronage of the arts and sciences.
Q: Which regions were prominently under the influence of the Rashtrakutas during this period?
A: The Rashtrakutas exerted their influence in the Deccan region of India, with their capital at Manyakheta. They played a crucial role in shaping the political and cultural landscape of the southern part of the subcontinent during the Age of Three Empires.
Q: How did the Palas contribute to the cultural and intellectual development of their empire?
A: The Palas were patrons of art and learning, particularly during the reign of Dharmapala and Devapala. Their support for Buddhism, along with the establishment of renowned centers of learning like Vikramashila, contributed to a flourishing intellectual environment.
Q: What were the key factors that eventually led to the decline of the three empires – Palas, Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas?
A: The decline of these empires was influenced by various factors, including invasions by external forces, internal conflicts, and economic challenges. Additionally, the emergence of new regional powers played a role in the eventual fragmentation and weakening of the once-dominant Palas, Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas.
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