Mughal Empire (Including later Mughals) – UPSC Medieval History Notes

The Mughal Empire, a remarkable chapter in the history of the Indian subcontinent, reigned as one of the world’s most influential and enduring dynasties from the early 16th to the mid-19th century. Known for its opulent cultural contributions, architectural marvels, and significant political influence, the Mughal Empire left an indelible mark on the Indian subcontinent. Established by the charismatic Babur in 1526 and reaching its zenith under emperors like Akbar the Great, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb, the Mughals oversaw a rich tapestry of cultural, religious, and political developments. This empire, marked by its unique blend of Persian and Indian influences, remains a subject of fascination and scholarly exploration, revealing a captivating narrative of power, art, and the interplay of diverse cultures. In this exploration, we delve into the rise and fall of the Mughal Empire, uncovering the profound impact it had on the subcontinent and its enduring legacy in the modern-day Indian subcontinent.

Babur was the founder of the Mughal empire which was established in 1526 after Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat.

Thus a new epoch and a new empire in India began, lasting for nearly three centuries beginning from 1526 to 1857. Six major rulers of this dynasty, Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb, known as the “Great Mughals”, left their mark on Indian
history.

The empire declined after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707.

Table of Contents

1. Zaheeruddin Mohammad Babur (1526-30AD)

Babur became the ruler of Farghana in 1494 at the age of 12 after his father’s death.
Babur faced resistance from the nobility and lost Samarqand and Farghana to the Uzbeks.
After years of wandering, he captured Kabul in 1504 and began planning to move towards Hindustan.
The conflict between Afghan chiefs Ibrahim Lodi and Rana Sanga of Mewar encouraged Babur’s ambitions.
Between 1519 and 1524, Babur invaded Bhera, Sialkot, and Lahore.
In 1526, Babur and Ibrahim Lodi’s forces met at the Battle of Panipat where Babur effectively applied the Rumi method of warfare and used cannons.
Babur conquered Delhi and Agra but still had to suppress the Rajputs and Afghans.
Babur defeated Rana Sanga at Khanwa in 1527 and Medini Rai at Chanderi in 1528.
In 1529, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi’s brother, Mohammad Lodi, in the Battle of Ghagra.
Babur died in 1530 and was a scholar of Persian and Arabic languages.
He wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Baburi, in Turki language, which was later translated into Persian and other languages.

2. Nasiruddin Mohammad Humayn (1530-1540 ; 1555-56)

Humayun succeeded Babur as the ruler of the Mughal Empire after he died in 1530.
Despite his name meaning “fortune,” Humayun was an unfortunate ruler who was not a skilled soldier like his father.
He faced challenges such as a weak financial system and the growing power of the Afghans, particularly under Sher Khan (later Sher Shah) in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
To counter this, Humayun defeated the Afghans at Daurah in 1532 and laid siege to the strong fort of Chunar.
However, in 1539, Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun in the Battle of Chausa, and Humayun barely managed to escape.
In the following year, Sher Shah Suri confronted Humayun again in Kannauj and defeated him completely in the Battle of Kannauj 1540.
As a result of this victory, Sher Shah Suri began his independent rule.

3. Sher Shah Suri(1540-55)

Farid, later known as Sher Khan and Sher Shah, was the son of a Jagirdar under the kingdom of Jaunpur.
His father held the jagir of Sasaram in Bihar during the rule of Lodis.
Sher Shah defeated Humayun in 1540 and became the sovereign ruler, establishing Afghan rule again in India after a gap of 14 years.
Sher Shah and his successors ruled for 15 years, known as the period of the Second Afghan Empire.
He conquered Malwa and Chanderi and led campaigns in Rajasthan against Marwar, Ranthambhore, Nagor, Ajmer, Merta Jodhpur, and Bikaner.
He defeated rebellious Afghans in Bengal and established himself as the supreme ruler from Sindh and Punjab to the whole of Rajputana in the West and Bengal in the East by 1545.
He died in 1545 while besieging the fort of Kalinjar due to an accidental blast of gunpowder.
Sher Shah made his government highly centralized and had important ministers like Diwan-i-Wizarat, Diwan-i-Ariz, Diwan-i-Rasalat, and Diwan-i-Insha.
He divided his empire into forty-seven sarkars, each led by a Chief Shiqdar and Chief Munsif.
Each sarkar was divided into several parganas, and each pargana had officers like Shiqdar, Amin, Fotedar, and Karkuns.
He improved communications by building four important highways and extending the Grand Trunk Road.
Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote Padmavat during his reign.
He built a new walled city in Delhi, later known as Purana Qila (Old Fort), and his mausoleum in Sasaram.

4. Humayun (1555-1556)

When Humayun left India in 1540, he married Hamida Banu Begum on his way to Sind. When they stayed in Amorkot, a Hindu kingdom ruled by Rana Prasad, Akbar was born in 1542. Humayun then proceeded to Iran and sought help from its ruler. He later defeated his brothers, Kamran and Askari. In the meantime, the Sur dynasty in India was declining rapidly. In 1555, Humayun defeated the Afghans and recovered the Mughal throne. After six months, he died in 1556 due to his fall from the staircase of his library.
His biography Humayunnama was written by Gulbadan Begum in Persian language.
He was buried in Delhi.

5. Akbar(1556-1605)

Akbar was only thirteen years old when Humayun died and he was coronated in Kalanaur in 1556.
Bairam Khan, Humayun’s confidant, served as Akbar’s regent from 1556 to 1560.
Akbar expanded the Mughal Empire under Bairam Khan’s regency, including the defeat of Hemu in the second battle of Panipat in 1556.
Akbar’s military conquests included the conquest of Malwa, Gondwana, Gujarat, Bihar, and Bengal, and the Khandesh region.
Akbar’s Rajput policy involved marrying a Rajput princess and allowing Rajput generals to rise to positions of power.
Akbar abolished the pilgrim tax and jizya, invited scholars from different religions to his court, and promulgated a new religion called Din Ilahi in 1582.
Akbar’s religious policy was drafted by Abul Faizi and his guru was Sheikh Mubarak.

6. Jahangir(1605-1627)

Nur-ud-din Jahangir succeeded Akbar as the Mughal Emperor.
Jahangir was the son of a Rajput wife of Akbar.
Prince Khusrau, Jahangir’s eldest son, challenged his ascension and staged a revolt with the help of Sikh Guru Arjun Dev. However, Khusrau was defeated, captured, and blinded, and Guru Arjun Dev was executed.
Malik Ambar declared independence in Ahmad Nagar in the Deccan in 1608 during Jahangir’s reign.
No additional territory was added to the Mughal Empire in the Deccan during Jahangir’s reign.
Two Englishmen, William Hawkins and Sir Tomas Roe, visited Jahangir during his reign. While Hawkins failed to get permission to establish an English factory in India, Roe succeeded in securing permission to establish a British factory in Surat.
Jahangir married Mehrunnisa in 1611, who was also known as Nur Jahan. She became a dominant figure in the royal household and encouraged Persian art and culture in the court.
Nur Jahan became the real power behind the throne and her political intrigues led Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) to rebel against his father.
After Jahangir’s death, Nur Jahan lost her power and influence.
Jahangir died near Lahore while traveling from Kashmir to Lahore and was buried in Lahore.

7. Shah Jahan (1627-1658)

After Jahangir died in 1627, Shah Jahan ascended the throne with the support of nobles and the army.
Shah Jahan launched a campaign to recover Kandahar and other ancestral lands in the northwest but was unsuccessful in controlling Kandahar.
Shah Jahan’s Deccan policy was successful; he defeated the forces of Ahmadnagar, annexed it, and signed a treaty with both Bijapur and Golkonda.
Shah Jahan defeated Shivaji’s father, Shahji Bhonsle.
In 1631, Shah Jahan’s wife Mumtaz Mahal passed away, and he started constructing the Taj Mahal in her memory at Agra.
Shah Jahan was contemporary to Louis XIV of France and had visitors from Europe like Bernier, Tavernier, Mandelslo, Peter Mundy, and Manucci, who left detailed accounts of India.
During the last days of Shah Jahan, there was a contest for the throne amongst his four sons, and a war of succession broke out.
Aurangzeb emerged victorious and imprisoned Shah Jahan, who died as a royal prisoner in January 1666, broken-hearted, and was buried in the Taj Mahal.

8. Aurangazeb (1657-1707)

Aurangzeb assumed the title Alamgir, World Conqueror.
His first ten years of reign were successful in suppressing minor revolts, but he faced serious difficulties later on.
Jats, Satnamis, and Sikhs revolted against him due to his harsh religious policy.
Aurangzeb was Puritan (religious) in nature and imposed jizya on Hindus.
He was influenced by the Nakshabandi Sufi order.
Prince Akbar rebelled against him, leading to the execution of the ninth Guru of Sikhs Guru Tegbahadur.
His Deccan policy aimed to contain the growing influence of the Marathas and curb rebellious activities of his son Akbar who had taken refuge in the Deccan. He annexed Golconda and Bijapur, but it proved to be a political blunder, as it exhausted the Mughal treasury and removed the barrier between the Mughals and the Marathas.
Aurangzeb sent Shaista Khan and Jai Singh to capture Shivaji, but he managed to escape to the Deccan and defied Mughal forces till his death.
Aurangzeb was severely tested by the Marathas till his death in 1707 as the sons of Shivaji continued the rebellion.
The death of Aurangzeb in 1707 marked a watershed in Indian history as the Mughal empire virtually came to an end even though the weak successors of Aurangzeb held the throne the next 150 years.

Administration in the Mughal Empire

The Mughals adopted many administrative features from the Sultanate and Shershah, including the Pargana, Sarkar, and groups of sarkars.
The Mughals formalized a new territorial unit called Suba and divided the empire into twelve provinces.
The Jagir and Mansab system was introduced, with officers assigned a rank (mansab) indicating personal status and the number of cavalrymen they were required to maintain (sawar).
The Mansab rank was not hereditary and appointments, promotions, and dismissals were directly made by the emperor.
Akbar experimented with revenue policies and based the Mughal revenue system on those of Alauddin Khilji and Sher Shah Sur.
In 1581, Revenue Minister Raja Todarmal reorganized the land revenue system into the Zabti or Bandobast system.
Land was measured and classified based on the fertility of the soil as Polaj (cultivated every year), Parauti (once in two years), Chachar (once in three or four years), and Banjar (once in five or more years).

Literature during Mughals

During the Mughal rule, several languages flourished, including Persian, Sanskrit, and regional languages.
Persian was the official language of administration in the Mughal Empire.
Urdu was developed as a common language for communication between people speaking different dialects.
Babur wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Baburi, in the Turki language, which provides details about the flora and fauna of India.
The Baburnama contains illustrations of the fauna of India.
Abdul Rahim Khan translated the Tuzuk-i-Baburi into Persian.
Abdul Fazl wrote the Akbarnama, a history of Akbar, and Ain-i-Akbari, a book on administration.
Jahangir wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, while Mutamid Khan wrote the biography of Jahangir as Iqbalnamah-i-Jahangir.
Shahjahan’s biography, Padshanamah, was written by Abdul Hamid Lahori and Inayat Khan, with Inayat Khan also writing the Shahjahan Namah.
Persian literature was enriched by translations of Sanskrit works, such as the Mahabharata under the supervision of Abul Faizi, and the Bhagavad Gita and Upanishads translated by Dara Shikoh.
Badauni, a bitter critic of Akbar, translated the Mahabharata into Persian as Razanamah.
Regional languages such as Bengali, Oriya, Rajasthani, and Gujarathi also developed during the Mughal period.
Hindi poets were attached to the Mughal court, including Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the Ramayana, the Ramcharitmanas, and Jagannath Pandithraya, court poet of Shahjahan, who wrote two Sanskrit books, Ganga Lahari, and Rasagangadharam.

Painting during Mughals

The development of Mughal painting is credited to Akbar and Jahangir.
The Mughal painting evolved from the Persian school of miniature painting with Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain influences.
Paintings revolved around themes like battles, legendary stories, hunting scenes, wildlife, royal life, mythology, etc.
Akbar was very particular about details and artistic elements, commissioned massive painting projects, and had an impressive number of painters in his court.
Jahangir was largely influenced by European painting and ordered his painters to follow the single-point perspective used by European artists.
Jahangir commissioned many paintings of birds, animals, and flowers realistically.
Shah Jahan commissioned many paintings for his collection with themes like gardens, pictures that gave great aesthetic pleasure, and lovers in intimate positions.
Shah Jahan’s eldest son preferred depicting natural elements like plants and animals in his paintings.

Architecture during Mughals

The Mughal era brought a new era in architecture.
Indo-Islamic architecture reached its zenith during this period.
Humayun’s Tomb in Delhi was the first building of the Mughal rule made of red sandstone. It had a main gateway and a tomb placed amidst a garden. Many consider it a precursor of the Taj Mahal.
Akbar built forts at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri, including the grand Buland Darwaza. This building was made following Akbar’s victory over Gujarat.
The tomb of Salim Chishti, Palace of Jodha Bai, Ibadat Khana, Birbal’s House and other buildings at Fatehpur Sikri reflect a synthesis of Persian and Indian elements.
During Jehangir’s reign, Akbar’s Mausoleum was constructed at Sikandra near Agra, and the beautiful tomb of Itimad-ud-daula was built entirely of marble.
Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst the Mughals and used marble extensively in his buildings.
Decorative design in inlay work, (called Pietra duro), beautiful arches, and minarets were the features of his buildings.
The Red Fort Jama Masjid of Delhi and above all the Taj Mahal are some of the buildings built by Shahjahan.

Economy of the Mughal Empire:

The Mughal Empire, spanning the 16th to the 18th centuries, witnessed a flourishing economy intricately woven with agriculture, trade, and a complex social structure. With its territorial zenith reached by the end of the 17th century, the empire grappled with political and administrative challenges.

Economic and Social Conditions

The Mughal social structure resembled a pyramid, with the emperor and nobility at its zenith, followed by a small middle class and the vast, densely concentrated poor class. The society’s organization mirrored feudal structures, with the king holding immense power, presiding over a court teeming with wealth and influence.

Throughout the Mughal era, society remained divided into three primary classes: the wealthy, the middle class, and the poor. The rich enjoyed opulence and abundant resources, contrasting sharply with the impoverished, who constituted the largest segment of society. The middle class, a relatively recent development, played a crucial role in the dynamics of Mughal India.

Standard of Living:

European traders and travelers visiting India during this period left vivid accounts of the country’s economic conditions. These accounts often emphasized the stark contrast between the ostentatious lifestyle of the ruling classes and the grinding poverty endured by peasants, artisans, and laborers. Income and wages determined the standard of living, with peasants, despite their difficult lives, managing to meet basic needs through agricultural productivity.

Village life exhibited a highly unequal social structure, with dominant castes exploiting weaker sections. Peasants, crucial to the agrarian economy, maintained stability through land ownership, paying land taxes to prevent eviction. The landless and some artisans faced harsher conditions. However, resident cultivators and zamindars, possessing larger lands, could invest in agricultural expansion.

Nobles and Zamindars: The Ruling Classes

In medieval India, nobles and zamindars constituted the ruling class. The Mughal nobility, the most privileged, was open theoretically to all, yet practical considerations favored those with aristocratic connections. Invitations to the nobility often extended to individuals from the Mughals’ homeland, neighboring countries, or even Indian Muslims and Hindus under Akbar’s inclusive policies.

Zamindars, with hereditary rights to collect land revenue, formed an integral part of the ruling class. Their ownership was determined by succession, and they played a crucial role in local governance. The zamindars collected land revenue, maintaining their own armed forces and living in fortified structures. The complex social fabric also included a middle strata, comprising traders, merchants, professionals, craftsmen, and officials.

Organization of Trade and Commerce

The Mughals prioritized infrastructure such as roads and sarais (rest houses), facilitating communication and trade. Uniform taxes were imposed on goods entering the empire, while Rahdari or Road cesses were declared illegal. High-purity silver rupees, introduced by the Mughals, became the standard coin, promoting a money economy. Trade flourished, and small townships expanded as rural grain markets grew. The nobility’s demand for luxury goods propelled handicraft production and town growth.

Foreign Trade and European Traders

India’s foreign trade thrived during the 16th and 17th centuries, with European traders significantly influencing the patterns. Indian exports, including food items and textiles, played a crucial role in regional trade. European attempts to acquire empires in India aimed at financing goods exported to Europe. While the Dutch succeeded in Southeast Asia, India’s strength and unity under Mughal and provincial governance thwarted complete European domination.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q: What was the Mughal Empire, and when did it exist?

A: The Mughal Empire was powerful and influential in the Indian subcontinent. It existed from 1526 to 1857, spanning over three centuries.

Q: Who were the prominent rulers of the Mughal Empire?

A: Some of the most notable Mughal emperors include Babur, Akbar the Great, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. Each of these rulers left a significant mark on the empire’s history.

Q: What were the major achievements of the Mughal Empire?

A: The Mughal Empire made several significant contributions to art, architecture, and culture. The construction of the Taj Mahal, the development of miniature paintings, and the promotion of religious tolerance under Akbar are some of the empire’s major achievements.

Q: What led to the decline of the Mughal Empire?

A: The decline of the Mughal Empire can be attributed to a combination of factors, including political instability, economic challenges, invasions by foreign powers, and a weakening of central authority. The British East India Company’s increasing influence also played a significant role in its decline.

Q: How did the Mughal Empire impact Indian society and culture?

A: The Mughal Empire had a profound influence on Indian society and culture. It introduced Persian and Islamic elements into Indian art, architecture, and language. It also contributed to the development of a rich cultural heritage that continues to shape modern India.

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