Policies & Reports related to Science & Technology – Science & Technology

In today’s rapidly evolving world, the intersection of science & technology has become the cornerstone of progress, innovation, and societal advancement. As such, the formulation and implementation of effective policies are paramount to harnessing the potential of these fields while mitigating associated risks. Policies governing science and technology not only shape research agendas but also influence economic competitiveness, national security, and social welfare. Concurrently, reports generated from scientific endeavors serve as invaluable tools, providing insights, evidence, and recommendations crucial for informed decision-making. Together, policies and reports form the bedrock upon which nations navigate the complexities of the modern era, striving to leverage the transformative power of science and technology for the collective benefit of humanity.

Technology Vision Document 2035 (TV 2035): 

• Presents a vision of Indian citizens’ needs in 2035 and explores how technology can realize this vision. 
• Considers India’s technological ‘peoplescape’ as crucial as its technological landscape, recognizing the importance of its citizens. 
• Divided into six sections to examine the technological dimensions of the vision. 

Technology Development Sectors: 

• Identifies 12 sectors crucial for technology development: Education, Medical Sciences and Healthcare, Food and Agriculture, Water, Energy, Environment, Habitat, Transportation, Infrastructure, Manufacturing, Materials, and Information and Communication Technology (ICT). 

Prerogatives: 

• Sets forth 12 prerogatives essential for every Indian, driving the technology vision for India. 
• Acknowledges the diverse population and the need for tailored policies to meet these prerogatives. 
• Differentiates targets, delivery mechanisms, and social consequences based on population segments. 

Essential Prerequisites: 

• Identifies critical technologies necessary to achieve prerogatives, organized into four stages of development. 
• Existing technology ready for deployment. 
• Pilot-scale technology requiring scaling up for practical application. 
• Research and development (R&D) stage technology requiring targeted research. 
• Imagined technology emerging from curiosity-driven, paradigm-shifting research. 
• Highlights three transversal technologies: materials, manufacturing, and ICT, serving as foundational elements for all other technologies. 
• Emphasizes the need for strong supporting infrastructure and an enabling ecosystem for technology development. 
• Stresses the importance of teamwork culture and cutting-edge fundamental research in fostering technology development. 

Technology Vision Document 2035 – Grand Challenges: 

• The document links technological advancements to India’s developmental needs, identifying twelve prerogatives aligned with real societal requirements. 
• It recognizes certain goals as Grand Challenges, requiring extensive efforts and medium-term realization, each with overarching goals and multiple specific targets. 
• These challenges, if met, are expected to have a multiplier effect, positively impacting various sectors. 
• Grand Challenges identified include: 
  1. Guaranteeing nutritional security and eliminating female and child anaemia. 
  2. Ensuring quantity and quality of water in all rivers and aquatic bodies. 
  3. Securing critical resources commensurate with India’s size. 
  4. Providing learner-centric, language-neutral, and holistic education to all. 
  5. Understanding national climate patterns and adapting to them. 
  6. Making India non-fossil fuel based. 
  7. Extending the railway to Leh and Tawang. 
  8. Ensuring location and ability independent electoral and financial empowerment. 
  9. Developing commercially viable decentralized and distributed energy for all. 
  10. Ensuring universal eco-friendly waste management. 

Technology Vision Document 2035 – Capabilities & Constraints: 

• Addresses the social impact of technology and the balance between capital and labor, advocating for prudent policies and skill development. 
• Classifies technologies into six categories from an Indian perspective: 
  1. Technology leadership. 
  2. Technology independence. 
  3. Technology innovation. 
  4. Technology adoption. 
  5. Technology dependence. 
  6. Technology constraints. 
• Emphasizes the importance of a rational assessment of India’s technological landscape’s capabilities and constraints to inform strategic decisions. 

Technology Vision Document 2035 – Comprehensive National Power: 

• Issues a ‘Call to Action’ to key stakeholders emphasizing the long-term sustainability of India’s technological prowess. 
• Key actions include: 
  1. Conducting advanced research in technical education institutions. 
  2. Increasing government financial support to 2% of GDP. 
  3. Increasing the number of full-time equivalent scientists in core research sectors. 
  4. Encouraging private sector participation and investment in emerging technologies. 
  5. Establishing strong academia-industry linkages. 
  6. Creating a research ecosystem to translate research into technology products/processes. 
• Identifies three key activities: 
  • Creation of knowledge. 
  • Ecosystem design for innovation and development. 
  • Technology deployment through specific national missions with defined targets and timelines. 

National Biotechnology Development Strategy -2015-2020 

The National Biotechnology Development Strategy -2015-2020 was unveiled by the Union Minister for Science & Technology and Earth Sciences in 2015. The Strategy aims to establish India as a world-class bio-manufacturing hub. It intends to launch a major mission, backed with significant investments, for the creation of new biotech products, create a strong infrastructure for R&D and commercialization, and empower India’s human resources scientifically and technologically. 

• Envisaged Mission: 
  • Provide impetus to utilizing knowledge and tools for humanity’s advantage. 
  • Launch a major mission for generating new biotech products. 
  • Empower India’s human resources scientifically and technologically. 
  • Create a robust infrastructure for R&D and commercialization. 
  • Establish India as a global bio-manufacturing hub. 
• Key Elements of the Strategy: 
  • Building a skilled workforce and leadership. 
  • Revitalizing the knowledge environment in line with the growing bio-economy. 
  • Enhancing research opportunities across basic, disciplinary, and interdisciplinary sciences. 
  • Encouraging use-inspired discovery research. 
  • Focusing on biotechnology tools for inclusive development. 
  • Nurturing innovation, translational capacity, and entrepreneurship. 
  • Ensuring a transparent, efficient, and globally best regulatory system and communication strategy. 
  • Fostering biotechnology cooperation through global and national alliances. 
  • Strengthening institutional capacity with redesigned governance models. 
  • Establishing a matrix for measuring processes and outcomes. 
• Implementation Approach: 
  • Collaboration and partnership with other ministries, departments, state governments, and international agencies. 
• Aims to achieve: 
  • Preparing India to achieve US$100 billion by 2025. 
  • Launching four major missions in healthcare, food and nutrition, clean energy, and education. 
• Creating a technology development and translation network across the country with global partnerships, including 5 new clusters, 40 biotech incubators, 150 technology transfer offices (TTOs), and 20 bio-connect centers. 
• Making strategic and focused investments in building human capital by establishing a Life Sciences and Biotechnology Education Council. 

National Intellectual Property Rights Policy: 

In an era where innovation and creativity are paramount, India unveils its National Intellectual Property Rights Policy under the resounding motto of “Creative India, Innovative India”. At its core, this policy seeks to deter the proliferation of counterfeit goods while fostering a culture of entrepreneurship, originality, and ingenuity. 

Under the aegis of the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce, Government of India, the implementation and evolution of intellectual property rights (IPRs) are meticulously charted. Upholding the principles of the World Trade Organization’s agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), India pledges its commitment to fostering a robust IPR regime. 

Key to the execution of the National IPR Policy is the establishment of the “Cell for IPR Promotion & Management (CIPAM)”, tasked with spearheading its objectives under the auspices of DPIIT. 

Goals: 

1. IPR Advocacy and Outreach: Elevating public awareness on the beneficial impact of IPRs on the economy, society, and culture. 
2. Promoting Innovation and Creation: Cultivating an ecosystem conducive to invention and originality. 
3. Reform and Strengthening of IPR Laws: Overhauling antiquated regulations with robust laws that harmonize rights holders’ interests with the broader public welfare. 
4. Human Capital Development: Fostering intellectual property education, research, and skill enhancement. 
5. Modernization of IPR Administration: Enhancing service-oriented administration to streamline innovation management. 
6. IPR Commercialization: Maximizing the value of IPR through effective commercialization strategies. 
7. Enhanced Enforcement Mechanisms: Bolstering enforcement and adjudication processes to combat IPR infringements effectively. 

Central to the policy’s framework is the establishment of a legal infrastructure aimed at expediting trademark approval processes. With a targeted timeline of one month, this overhaul aims to drastically reduce the approval time, which currently exceeds a year. 

Development and Approval: 

• The IPR policy emerged from exhaustive consultations involving nearly 300 organizations and stakeholders, alongside 31 Government of India departments. 
• It received official endorsement from the Indian government on May 12th, 2016. 

Vision and Implementation: 

• Emphasizing synergy among diverse forms of intellectual property, statutes, and agencies, the policy underscores the interconnectedness within India’s IP landscape. 
• Drawing from global best practices, the policy aims to establish robust institutional mechanisms for implementation, monitoring, and periodic review. 

Alignment with International Standards: 

• The policy reaffirms India’s commitment to the TRIPS agreement and the Doha Development Agenda, ensuring adherence to global IPR standards. 
• Acknowledging India’s robust legislative, judicial, and administrative frameworks, the policy strikes a balance between public interest and rights holders’ concerns. 

Promoting Innovation and Economic Growth: 

• Recognizing the economic potential of India’s “frugal engineering,” the policy advocates for the monetization of intellectual property as a valuable asset and economic tool. 
• It positions India as an innovation-friendly nation, fostering collaboration among stakeholders and promoting a transparent, service-oriented IPR administration. 

Review Mechanisms and Benefits: 

• A committee under the Secretary of the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DIPP) conducts five-year reviews of the policy’s efficacy. 
• The policy envisages several benefits, including harmonizing India’s IP regime with international standards, enhancing the nation’s Ease of Doing Business score, and attracting investments while bolstering credibility. 

Addressing Concerns and Disadvantages: 

• Concerns arise regarding the potential undermining of TRIPS commitments and public health interests. 
• The policy’s impact on traditional knowledge, informal creativity, and access to healthcare remains uncertain. 
• Questions linger regarding the effectiveness of state laws in copyright protection and the policy’s specificity in promoting innovation. 
• Some argue against the assumption that greater IP protection inherently leads to increased innovation, highlighting the nuanced relationship between IP and creativity. 

Key Achievements of the New National IPR Policy 

1. Global Recognition: India’s ranking in the WIPO-issued Global Innovation Index (GII) surged from 81st in 2015 to an impressive 48th position in 2020, showcasing its growing prominence in the global innovation landscape. 
2. Increased Patent and Trademark Filings: Patent filings experienced a notable uptick of approximately 7% in the first eight months of 2018–19 compared to the corresponding period in 2017–18. Additionally, trademark filings witnessed a substantial surge of nearly 28% during the same timeframe, reflecting heightened activity in intellectual property creation and protection. 
3. Strengthened Institutional Mechanisms: Efforts to enhance institutional mechanisms for promoting and safeguarding intellectual property have yielded positive results. The government’s augmentation of technical manpower has significantly reduced the processing time for IP applications, improving efficiency and responsiveness. 
4. Automated Issuance of Certificates: The introduction of automatic issuance of electronically generated patent and trademark certificates marks a significant stride towards expediting administrative procedures and enhancing accessibility for stakeholders. 
5. Streamlined Processes: In alignment with the IP Process Re-engineering Patent Rules, 2003, processes related to intellectual property have been streamlined and made more user-friendly. Notably, updates to Trademarks Rules announced in 2017 have further facilitated smoother operations. 
6. IPR Awareness Initiatives: Extensive IPR awareness seminars have been conducted targeting businesses, law enforcement agencies, the judicial system, and even rural schools, leveraging satellite communication technology to reach diverse audiences. These initiatives aim to foster a culture of intellectual property awareness and compliance across various sectors of society. 
7. Establishment of TISCs: Centers for Technology and Innovation Support (TISCs) have been established in numerous universities across various states in collaboration with WIPO. These centers serve as focal points for providing intellectual property-related support and guidance, fostering innovation and knowledge dissemination. 

Understanding Synthetic Biology: 

Synthetic biology embodies the realm of scientific inquiry focused on harnessing genetic sequencing, editing, and manipulation techniques to engineer organisms or organic molecules with novel functionalities within living systems. It represents a convergence of biology, engineering, and computational sciences aimed at reshaping the boundaries of biological possibility. 

Key Points: 

1. Genetic Engineering and Modification: At its core, synthetic biology empowers scientists to wield precise control over genetic material, allowing for the creation of organisms or molecules with tailored traits or functions. 

2. DNA Design and Synthesis: Synthetic biology grants researchers the ability to design and synthesize entirely new sequences of DNA de novo, opening avenues for the creation of custom genetic constructs and biological systems. 

Historical Context: 

• Origins of the Term: The term “synthetic biology” traces its origins back to Barbara Hobomin, who first used it in 1980 to delineate bacteria engineered through recombinant DNA technology, thus heralding the dawn of genetic manipulation within living organisms. 
• Early Associations: Initially, synthetic biology and “bioengineering” were largely synonymous, encapsulating the field’s foundational principles and practices. 
• Reintroduction in 2000: In a pivotal moment at the annual meeting of the American Chemical Society in San Francisco in 2000, Eric Kool and other luminaries reintroduced the term “synthetic biology,” signifying a renewed emphasis on the intersection of chemistry, biology, and engineering in the pursuit of biological innovation. 

Regulatory Dimensions in Synthetic Biology 

International Bodies & Agreements: 

• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Sets forth principles for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, including regulations on access and benefit-sharing. 
• Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety: Addresses the safe transfer, handling, and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology. 
• Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing: Focuses on the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources. 
• Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol: Enhances the effectiveness of the Cartagena Protocol by providing liability and redress mechanisms. 
• Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO): Addresses food security, sustainable agriculture, and international trade in agricultural products. 
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): Regulates international trade in endangered species to ensure their survival. 
• International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN): Provides guidance on the conservation of biodiversity and natural resources. 
• Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS): Governs the protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights, including patents and trademarks. 
• UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS): Addresses marine biodiversity and regulates activities in the oceans. 
• Biological Weapons Convention: Prohibits the development, production, and stockpiling of biological weapons. 

India’s Regulatory System: 

• Drugs and Cosmetics Rules – 1988: Regulates the import, manufacture, distribution, and sale of drugs and cosmetics in India. 
• Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001: Protects plant varieties and ensures farmers’ rights to save, use, exchange, and sell seeds. 
• Biological Diversity Act, 2002: Regulates access to biological resources and associated traditional knowledge, and ensures equitable benefit-sharing. 
• Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006: Sets standards for food products to ensure safety and quality throughout the food supply chain. 

India’s Participation: India actively participates in international governance bodies and agreements related to synthetic biology, aligning its regulatory frameworks with global standards to promote responsible innovation and sustainable development. 

Applications of Synthetic Biology: 

1. Biofuel Production: Synthetic biology facilitates the creation of microorganisms adept at efficiently converting renewable feedstocks, like plant materials or waste products, into biofuels, thereby advancing sustainable energy solutions. 
2. Natural Product Synthesis: By engineering microbes, synthetic biology enables the production of intricate natural products through streamlined enzymatic pathways, paving the way for efficient and scalable synthesis. 
3. Bioremediation: Utilizing microorganisms, synthetic biology aids in remedying environmental pollution by facilitating the removal of pollutants from water, soil, and air, promoting ecological restoration. 
4. Medicine: Synthetic biology holds promise in drug development by enabling the creation of novel therapeutics, including vaccines and cancer treatments, through innovative genetic engineering approaches. 
5. Industrial Chemicals: Synthetic biology offers a greener and more cost-effective route to producing industrial chemicals, such as plastics and detergents, by leveraging sustainable biological processes. 
6. Applied Protein Design: Through redesigning biological components, synthetic biology broadens the repertoire of natural protein functions, facilitating the development of new processes and applications. 
7. Nutrient Enrichment: Genetic modification of crops, like rice, to produce essential nutrients, such as beta-carotene, addresses nutritional deficiencies and enhances food security. 
8. Environmental Cleanup: Synthetic biology holds potential in creating microorganisms capable of mitigating pollution and restoring damaged ecosystems, promoting environmental sustainability. 
9. Agricultural Advancements: Synthetic biology drives innovations in agriculture by enhancing crop yields, developing drought and disease-resistant varieties, and bolstering food production in a changing climate. 
10. Synthetic Genomics: Through the design and construction of simplified genomes for natural bacteria, synthetic genomics offers insights into microbial systems and their applications in various fields. 
11. Sustainable Fragrance Production: Engineered yeast can produce fragrances like rose oil sustainably, offering eco-friendly alternatives to traditional methods. 
12. Research and Development: Synthetic biology serves as a potent tool for unraveling fundamental biological processes, fueling discoveries and breakthroughs across diverse scientific disciplines. 
13. Genomic Standardization: Identifying and categorizing standardized genomic components accelerates the assembly of novel biological systems, streamlining research and development endeavors. 

Concerns in Synthetic Biology: 

1. Safety Concerns: The unpredictable behavior of synthetic biological systems raises safety concerns, particularly regarding the unintended consequences of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) used in agriculture, which could adversely affect the environment. 
2. Environmental Health Risks: The release of genetically engineered organisms into the environment, whether intentional or accidental, poses significant risks to both human health and ecosystems. Unforeseen consequences could lead to irreversible environmental damage. 
3. DIY Biology Movement: The emergence of the “citizen scientist” movement within synthetic biology brings concerns about amateur experimentation and inadequate knowledge, potentially leading to unsafe practices and unanticipated outcomes. 
4. Security Threats: Synthetic biology’s dual-use nature raises security concerns, as advancements in the field could be exploited for malicious purposes, including the development of bioweapons. 
5. Ethical Considerations: Ethical dilemmas abound in synthetic biology, such as the creation of genetically modified organisms that may disrupt biodiversity or the prospect of “designer babies.” These ethical concerns demand thoughtful deliberation and robust regulatory frameworks. 
6. Public Understanding and Acceptance: A lack of public awareness and acceptance of synthetic biology hinders its responsible development and implementation. Building trust and fostering dialogue are essential for navigating the ethical, social, and regulatory complexities surrounding the field. 

Human DNA Profiling: 

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, serves as the fundamental genetic blueprint found in nearly all living organisms, including humans. Comprising two intertwined strands forming a double helix, DNA consists of nucleotides—cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A), and thymine (T)—alongside deoxyribose sugar and phosphate groups. 

Essential to building proteins and maintaining biological functions, DNA encodes the intricate information required for an organism’s development and functioning. While the vast majority of DNA sequences are shared among individuals, unique variations allow for distinct genetic identification. 

DNA can be extracted from various sources, such as saliva, hair, blood, tissues, or nail scrapings. Its structural elucidation by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953 marked a groundbreaking achievement, earning them the Nobel Prize in 1962. Subsequently, Sir Alec John Jeffrey’s pioneering work in 1984 led to the modern technology of DNA profiling. 

DNA Profiling, a pivotal forensic tool, discerns individual characteristics for identification purposes. The advent of the DNA Index System revolutionizes forensic investigations, enabling rapid DNA profiling from live samples within 90-120 minutes, courtesy of the innovative RapidHit DNA system developed by IntegenX, Inc. of the USA. 

Globally, over 60 countries, including Argentina, the United States, China, Britain, and Canada, incorporate DNA technology into criminal investigations. In the Netherlands, Germany, France, Austria, and India, DNA profiling is reserved for serious criminal cases, requiring court permission for the collection and analysis of biological samples from suspects. 

The Evolution of DNA Profiling Legislation in India 

DNA evidence has been recognized by Indian courts since 1985, marking a significant milestone in forensic science. However, the journey towards comprehensive legislation on DNA profiling in India has been a protracted one: 

1. Initiative and Committee Formation (2003): The groundwork for regulating DNA sample usage in crime-related matters began in 2003. The Department of Biotechnology established the DNA Profiling Advisory Committee to draft recommendations for legislation. 
2. Drafting of the Human DNA Profiling Bill (2006-2007): The Department of Biotechnology collaborated with the Union Government to draft the Human DNA Profiling Bill in 2006, which later evolved into the Human DNA Profiling Bill, 2007. 
3. Public Scrutiny and Delay (2007-2015): Despite being made public in 2007, the bill faced criticism from civil society and non-governmental organizations for its inadequate privacy provisions. In response, an expert committee was formed in 2013 to address concerns and finalize the bill’s text. However, privacy and data security criticisms persisted, delaying its introduction in Parliament. 
4. Introduction of the 2016 Bill: In 2016, the Use and Regulation of DNA-based Technology in Civil and Criminal Proceedings, Identification of Missing Persons and Human Remains Bill was slated for introduction. Yet, concerns lingered regarding privacy safeguards, contamination prevention, and data usage protocols among law enforcement agencies and researchers. 
5. State-Level Implementation (2016): Despite legislative delays, Andhra Pradesh emerged as the first Indian state to initiate DNA profiling to combat crime effectively. 
6. Law Commission’s Draft Bill (2018): The Law Commission of India responded to the complexity of DNA profiling by preparing the draft DNA Based Technology (Use and Regulation) Bill 2017. Acknowledging DNA profiling’s utility in disaster victim identification and criminal investigations, the commission emphasized the paramount importance of privacy and ethical considerations. 
7. Privacy and Ethical Concerns (Ongoing): The Law Commission underscored the need for legitimate statutory recognition of DNA profiling, aligning with constitutional provisions while addressing privacy and ethical concerns associated with data collection and usage. 

Recommendations for DNA Profiling Legislation by the Law Commission 

The Law Commission of India has put forth its 271st report titled “Human DNA Profiling – A Draft Bill for the Use and Regulation of DNA Based Technology” to the Government. Here are the key recommendations provided by the Commission: 

1. Establishment of a DNA Profiling Board: a. The Commission suggests the formation of a statutory DNA Profiling Board entrusted with various responsibilities. These include setting procedures and standards for DNA laboratories, accrediting such laboratories, and advising relevant Ministries/Departments on DNA-related matters. b. The Board will develop guidelines for training police and investigative agencies in DNA-related procedures. c. Ethical and human rights issues related to DNA testing will also fall within the purview of the Board. d. Research and development activities in DNA testing and related fields will be recommended by the Board. e. The Board may issue regulations governing the entry, retention, and deletion of DNA profiles. 
2. Establishment of DNA Data Banks: The Commission recommends the establishment of a National DNA Data Bank by the Central Government, along with Regional DNA Data Banks for states. These banks will store DNA profiles obtained from accredited laboratories and maintain various indices for crime scene data, suspects, offenders, missing persons, and unidentified deceased individuals. 
3. Restriction on DNA Profiling Use: DNA profiling should only be conducted for the purpose of identifying individuals and should not be used to extract other types of information. 
4. Prohibition on Sharing DNA Profiles with Foreign Entities: Sharing DNA profiles with foreign governments, organizations, or institutions is strictly prohibited under the proposed legislation. 
5. Confidentiality and Record-Keeping: There should be strict confidentiality in the maintenance and use of DNA profile records. 
6. Penalties for Violations: Violators of the provisions outlined in the legislation may face imprisonment for up to three years and fines of up to Rs. 2 lakhs. 
7. Under-Trial Rights: Under-trials have the right to request another DNA testing if they can demonstrate to the court that previous DNA samples were contaminated and unreliable. 
8. Specification of DNA Experts: DNA experts may be designated as Government Scientific Experts under clause (g) of sub-section (4) of Section 293 of the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC). 

FAQs

1. What is the significance of national science and technology policies?

• National science and technology policies outline a country’s strategic approach towards research, innovation, and technological development. They provide a framework for directing resources, fostering collaboration, and addressing societal challenges through science and technology.

2. How do science and technology policies impact economic growth?

• Science and technology policies stimulate economic growth by fostering innovation, improving productivity, and creating new industries and job opportunities. They encourage investment in research and development, leading to the creation of new products, services, and technologies that drive economic advancement.

3. What role do reports play in shaping science and technology policies?

• Reports provide evidence-based insights into the state of science and technology within a country or region. They assess current trends, identify challenges and opportunities, and offer recommendations for policy formulation and implementation. Reports serve as valuable resources for policymakers, stakeholders, and the public to make informed decisions.

4. How do science and technology policies address ethical considerations?

• Science and technology policies often incorporate ethical principles to guide research and innovation responsibly. They may include guidelines for ethical conduct in areas such as human subjects research, genetic engineering, artificial intelligence, and data privacy. By addressing ethical considerations, policies ensure that scientific advancements benefit society while minimizing potential risks and harms.

5. How do international collaborations influence science and technology policies?

• International collaborations play a crucial role in shaping science and technology policies by facilitating knowledge exchange, sharing best practices, and promoting cooperation on global challenges. Policymakers often seek input from international organizations, research institutions, and other countries to develop policies that align with global standards and priorities, fostering innovation and addressing common challenges on a global scale.

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