Q1. Examine the forest resources of India and explain the principles of conservation which could be applied to improve the forest wealth of India. (1994)
Answer:
Forests are precious national resource which not only play significant role in national economy but help in pollution control and maintaining ecological balance. These offer a number of direct and indirect advantages which have been realised since time immemorial.
Indian forests contain over 5000 species of wood of which about 450 are commercially valuable. This includes both hard and soft wood. Hard woods are mostly provided by trees belonging to tropical and sub-tropical forets, i.e. sal, teak, sissoo, mahogany, ebony, iron-wood, logwood, semal, etc. Similarly trees (of temperate forests) like spruce, fir, cedar, deodar pine, blue pine, poplar etc. supply soft wood over 70% of which goes to industrial uses. The total production of wood (both industrial and fuel)from Indian forests is estimated at 23.2 million cubic meters.
According to state of the Forests Report, 1999, forests occupy 619260 sq km of country’s surface area (18.84% of actual geographical area) which is much lower in comparison to many other countries of the world (e.g. Finland-72.8%, Japan 61.9%, Brazil 56.8%).
The minimum forest cover that has been approved by the Forest Policy is 33% of the total geographical area (60% in hills and 25% in the plains) of the country, but India possesses much less than this proportion. Further the forest area is very unevenly distributed. Only hilly states have sufficient forests cover. Other like Tripura, Sikkim, Goa, Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Kerala have more than 25% of their area under foretsts. The condition is very deplovable in states like Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, West Bengal, plains Uttar Pradesh and Bihar where the proportion of forests cover is less than 10 per cent.
India’s forests make significant contribution to the national economy. They provide valuable industrial and fuel wood in bulk. Further they yield more than four thousand tonnes of bamboos every year. They also supply sabai grass for use in paper and pulp industry; Sandal wood trees utilised in making aromatic/medicinal substances; Tendu leaves for biri making; thousand of tonnes of lac and many other major and minor products.
Although India has rich and varied forest resources but due to lack of scientific planning, indefenous method of exploitation and mismanagement their annual yield is low. Low forest cover, deforestation inaccessibility of some forests absence of pure stands, and inadequate protection against forest fires, jhooming, etc. are some of the major problems regarding Indian forest resources.
In view of these problems and great ecological and economic importance these forests have, they must be protected at all cost. Following are the principles of conservation to improve the forest wealth of India:
- A massive afforestation programme with particular emphasis on fuel-wood, fodder and small wood should be launched to cover up all degraded and denuded lands.
- Forest conservation does not mean the denial of use but rather the proper use without causing any adverse effect on our economy or environment.
- Any scheme of conservation of forest on a piecemeal basis will not solve the problem. Conservation of forests is a national problem and should be tackled as such.
- There should be perfect co-ordination between the forest department and other departments. A carefully coordinated scientific policy for conservation of forests should be the first step in any scheme of national planning.
- The rights and concessions like grazing-collecting fuel wood, small wood and fodder from forests by the local people should not be allowed to exceed the carrying capacity of the forests.
- Development projects including mining and industrial activities should be so planned to cause minimum damage to forest environment. Mining and industrial allotments should have an obligatory clause for reforestation.
- No new license to forest based industry should be granted unless it is cleared by the Department of forest and environment. Such industries may be allotted degraded waste lands to raise forests for their utilisation.
- Tribals and local people should be directly involved in the protection, regeneration and management of forests through co-operatives. The development of forest village at par with model village may be encouraged in the tribal dominated areas.
- Forestry should be recognised as a scientific discipline as well as profession. Agricultural universities should devise forestry based courses leading to post-graduate and research degrees in forest conservation & management.
- There is need to change our entire outlook towards the forests. These should not be treated as a source of revenue only. Planting and protection of trees should be regarded as the sacred duty of the individual.
Manganese: Manganese ore is an important ingredient in the manufacture of iron and steel. It is also utilised for making ferro-manganese alloys. India is one of the leading producers of manganese ore in the world.
Though this ore occurs at a number of places in the Indian Plateau, it is found abundantly in Balaghat, Bhandara and Nagpur districts situated close to each other in the central part of India. According to estimates of the Geological Survey of India the total reserves of manganese are in about 193 million tonnes (C.M.I.E., Mumbai, 1989), while the reserves of high grade ore (mangnese more than 70%) are estimated as 78.7 million tonnes (Indian Mineral Year Book, 1983). Over 76 per cent of total reserves of manganese ore are confined to five states of Karnataka (38%), Orissa (17.6%), Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Goa.
In manganese also India has surplus production leading annual export of about 15% of its total production. However, there has been gradual decline in the quantity of export since 1971, mainly due to increasing domestic consumption. The future domestic demand of manganese is expected to rise further in view of expected growth in iron & steel and other industries.
Chromite: Chromium is produced from chromite which is widely used in metallurgical, refractory and chemical industries. The total recoverable reserves of chromite are estimated at 86 million tonnes. Out of this about 34 per cent is metallurgical and 29 per cent Charge Chrome grade. Deposits of economic significance occur in Orissa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Manipur. However, refractory grade reserves of chromite are very limited. India’s consumption of chromite is low. This consumption is increasing due to rapid expansion in ferro-chrome and refractory industries. Hence the future demand of chromite is expected to rise. Reserves of other important metalliferous minerals is rather low in India.
Q2. Identify the important biotic-resource regions of India. Highlight in brief the problems and remedial measures of biotic resource conservation in India. (2004)
Answer:
Biotic resources refer to flora and fauna of a country and India has no dearth of these resources. With two per cent of the world’s land, the country has about five per cent of living resources. It has therefore, been designated as one of the 12 megadiversity states in the world. India is said to have about 46,000 species of plants (7% of the world’s total) ranging from thorny bushes to evergreen forests. Indian fauna too is varied due to diverse physical and climatic conditions, comprising 6.7 per cent of world’s total.
On the basis of studies done by several scholars like Hooker and Thomson, Clarke, C.C. Cadder, D. Chatterji, S.H. Prater, etc. India can be divided into following eight biotic-resource regions:
- Eastern Himalaya: This region comprises the hilly areas of West Bengal, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh where heavy rainfall, high temperature and humidity are the characteristic climatic conditions. This region comprises about 400 plant species varying from tropical to temperate and Alpine. To the height of 1524 m are found the sub-tropical forests with sal, oak, chestnut, etc. as the main trees. Between 1524 m and 2740m temperate broad leafed trees like birch, oak, maple, elder, etc. dominate. Between 2740 and 3657 m lies a belt of coninal forests with trees like chir, spruce, deodar, rodrendrons, etc. A zone of Alpine forets lies beyond 3657 metre with main trees like silver fir, juniper, rhododendrous, masses and lichens.
- As far as fauna is concerned, this region abounds in lower order organisms (due to hot humid conditions). Various wild animals such as black and brown bear, panther tigers etc. are also found besides numerous birds.
- Western Himalayas: This region comprising Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir receives less rainfall than eastern Himalayas. Here again, in sub-tropical vegetation (up to 1524m) sal, semal and savanna type of vegetation are found. Amongst temperate vegetation chir, oak, deodar, elder, birch and conifers are important. Similarly Alpine vegetation between 3657 to 4572 metre is dominated by juniper, silver fir, birch, etc. The faunal resources of this region include various kinds of sheeps and goats, brown and black bear, snow leopard, panther, yak, lynx and Kashmir stag besides numerous variety of birds.
- Assam Region: This biotic-resource region covers Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura and Mizoram. Vegetation here maintains the Himalayan heterogeneity along with south-east Asian impact. The region abounds in various types of bamboos and palms. The characteristic fauna of this region include the famous Indian rhino, apart from bears, panthers, elephants, wild buffalo, barasingha, reptiles etc.
- Ganga Plain: The natural vegetation of this biotic-resource region has almost been wiped out due to population pressure and growing economic activities. Whatever floral resource remains varies between semi arid shrubs in the Arawali region to evergreen mangrove forest in the Ganga delta. The dry deciduous trees of Uttar Pradesh changes to moist deciduous in eastern Bihar and West Bengal and to mangrove type (Sundarbans) in Ganga delta. Moreover there exists different types of grasses all over the region. Trees of fruits like mango, guava, etc. are also found yielding valuable fruits. Sambhar, Hog Deer, Monkeys, Royal Bengal Tiger, Black Buck, Blue Bull, Panther, etc. inhabit this region besides cows and buffalows and numerous birds.
- Satluj Basin: This biotic-resource region covers plains of Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Kachchh and northern parts of Gujarat. Thorny shrubs and trees with thick bark pre-dominate in this region of scanty rainfall. Accacias, cacti, wild palms, khejra, palas, etc., are significant trees. Faunal resources include tiger, lions of Gir forests, cheetahs, panther, sambhur, deers, blue bull and domesticated cows, sheeps and camels (esp. in Rajasthan desert).
- Deccan Region: This region extends over major portion of the Peninsular India. Trees of sal are found in the north, teak in the middle while satinwood, white sandal red sandal, toon etc. are found in the southern part of this region. The Deccan region has gaur or the Indian bison, sloth bear, sambur, spotted deer, barasingha, tiger, golden langoor, elephant, panther, blue bull and hyaena. The famous Olive Ridely Turtles breed in Orissa coast.
- Malabar Region: This biotic-resource region extends over the western coast from Gulf of Cambay to Cape Comorin. The type of vegetation here ranges from moist tropical evergreen to broad leaved mixed and monsson deciduous type. The temperate montane forest found in the Nilgiri hills is called ‘Shola forest’. The region also bears the influence of Malaya vegetation. The faunal resources here include sambur, cheetal, elephant bison, monkeys, numerous variety of birds, etc.
- Andaman-Nicobar Region: The floral resources of this region clearly depict the Malayan and Burmese influence. The main vegetation type is tropical evergreen type with different varieties of palms, canes, etc. The region abounds in lower lorder organisms.
- Off Shore Region: Numerous variety of fish resources, corals, turtles, molluscs, crustaceans, seaweeds, reptiles, etc. are found here.
Problmes of Biotic Resource Conservation: The country’s biotic resources including forests and wild life are being depleted at an alarming rate which is a threat to the ecological stability. The major problems of biotic resource conservation include:
- Deforestation due to developmental activities such as agriculture, settlement, industries, etc.
- Traditional Jhuming agriculture
- Forest fires, most of which, in India, are caused by human agency, deliberately or accidentally.
- Overgrazing
- Continuous hunting of wildlife for games.
- Illegal Poaching
- Lack of adequate fodder, health and proper management facilities for livestock
Remedial Measures
- Taking steps for population stabilisation
- Control and strict regulation of developmental activities, especially in the ecologically sensitive areas
- Large scale afforestation programmes.
- Devising, testing and demonstrating principles and techniques for prevention, detection and suppression of forests fires.
- Utilisation of GIS technology for the conservation of floral and faunal resources.
- Continuous increase in the national parks and wildlife santuaries in all parts of the country.
- Strict laws and their implementation for the protection of wildlife and control of paching and illegal trade in wildlife products.
- Identification of endangered species of wild animals for the purpose of captive breeding.
- Scientific and proper management of livestocks.
Q3. Critically examine the metalliferous mineral resources of India with particular reference to their present and future demands. (1996)
Answer:
Metalliferous mineralas form an important section of mining activity in India and provide solid base to metallurgical industries in the country. Metalliferous minerals are those minerals which have iron content. Iron ore, manganese, chromite, tungsten, nickel, cobalt, vanadium etc. are important example of metalliferous minerals.
Iron Ore:
India isone of the richest countries of the world in iron ore deposits. Iron ore is the back bone of modern civilization. A good quality iron-ore type, known as haematite occurs abundantly in the country. Its reserves account for about two-thirds of the total iron-ore reserves in India. Total reserves of hematite having iron content 55% and more are estimated at 11,469.71 million tonnes, according to Indian Mineral Year Book, 1982. It is mainly found in the Dharwar and Cudappah rocks of the Peninsular India. The best quality iron ore, magnetite is also found in India, though in lesser quantity.
Among the countries that are leading others in the iron-ore reserves, India occupies the fifth position. Also, India has the largest iron ore reserves in Asia. The ores are high grade and easily accessible. Being free from impurities like sulphur and phosphorus, they are good for smelting. A notable aspect of the distribution of iron ore is that some of the iron ore fields lie close to the coal-fields, thereby enhancing the exploitative capacity of iron ore reserves. The ore is mined by cheap open-cast method.
The iron-ore is widely distributed in the country but large deposits are concentrated in few areas. Among the states, Jharkhand has the largest reserves of iron-ore (25.7% of India) followed by Orissa (27.72%) Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh-Chhatishgarh and Goa. These six states together provide 97.5 per cent of the total iron-ore reserves of the country.
Singhbhum district (Jharkhand) and the adjoining districts of Keonjhar, Mayurbhanj and Sundargarh (Orissa) form the richest reserves of high-grade iron ore. The ore is haematite with iron context above 60%. The chief mixing centres are Gua, Noamundi and Manoharpur in Singhbhum district and Badampahar and Sulaipat in Mayurbhanj district. Good quality Iron Ore is also found in Chhatisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Goa. Iron ore found in Goa in high-grade and is located quite close to the port of Marmagao.
Since the First Five Year Plan, there has been constant rise in the production of iron ore in India. The iron ore production at present is more than 75 million tonnes. India is one of the largest producer of iron ore in the world and it has surplus production after meeting its home demand. Hence a substantial portion of the iron ore production is exported. In 1990-91, about 58% of total production was exported. This share was reduced to 47.01 and 41.39% during 1995-96 and 1996-97 due to rising internal demand. This internal demand of iron ore is expected to rise further in view of present thrust on infrastructure development and industrialisation in the present era of liberalisation and privatisation.
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