Mughals established and maintained one of the largest empires in Indian History. In terms of military power, administrative innovations, cultural developments, economic prosperity, and political consolidation, the Mughal Empire attained new heights. By the latter half of the 16th century, they expanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi.
The Mughals
- The Mughal Empire, also known as Gurkani, was a vast realm encompassing significant parts of the Indian subcontinent.
- Its origins trace back to Babur’s triumph over Ibrahim Lodi, with a brief interlude of 15 years when Sher Shah Suri and his successors governed the land. Spanning from AD 1526 to 1707, the Mughal Empire endured for 181 years.
Rulers of the Mughal Dynasty
- Babur (Jahiruddin Muhammad Babur) (AD 1526-1530)
- Humayun (AD 1530-1540, AD 1555-1556)
- Akbar (Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar) (AD 1556-1605)
- Salim/Jahangir (AD 1605-1627)
- Shah Jahan (AD 1628-1658)
- Aurangzeb (AD 1658-1707)
Babur (AD 1526-1530)
- The founder of the Mughal Empire in India, Babur, traced his ancestry to Timur (on his father’s side) and Genghis Khan (on his mother’s side).
- Born in Farghana in AD 1483, Babur succeeded his father, Umar Sheikh Mirza, at the age of 11 in AD 1494. His early years in Chinese Turkistan exposed him to the novel Tulughma warfare strategy, diverting the enemy’s attention by attacking flanking parties to avoid direct clashes with the main forces.
- Facing hostility in Central Asia, Babur captured Samarkand but soon had to retreat. After years of wandering, he gained control of Kabul in AD 1504.
- Proficient in Persian and Arabic, Babur wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Baburi, in Chugtai Turkish, later translated into Persian and other languages.
- Babur introduced the Char Bagh style of architecture in India, constructing mosques at Panipat and Sambhal. He passed away on 26th December AD 1530, initially buried in Aram Bagh, later shifted to Kabul.
Babur’s Conquest of India
- Between AD 1519 and 1523, Babur embarked on four voyages to India with the goal of conquest. Encouraged by Daulat Khan, a powerful noble dissatisfied with Ibrahim Lodi, and with the political situation in North-West India favoring his entry, Babur ventured into India.
- Rana Sanga, the Rajput monarch of Mewar, sought to expand his influence in North India, providing an opportunity for Babur. Invitations from Rana Sanga and Daulat Khan Lodi may have fueled Babur’s ambitions.
- He seized Bhera, Sialkot, and Lahore between AD 1519 and 1524.
Major Wars Led by Babur
Key battles involving the Mughal Emperor Babur include:
First Battle of Panipat (AD 1526)
- The First Battle of Panipat took place in AD 1526, where Ibrahim Lodi and Babur’s forces finally clashed. Ibrahim’s army, with an estimated strength of 1,00,000 soldiers, faced Babur’s smaller force of 12,000 warriors.
- Babur employed distinctive strategies when confronting opponents on the battlefield.
- Significantly, the use of cannons in 16th-century warfare played a crucial role, skillfully deployed by Babur in the initial conflict at Panipat.
- The victory in the First Battle of Panipat effectively ended the Lodi Kingdom in India, as Ibrahim Lodi perished on the battlefield after being abandoned by his feudatories and generals.
- This triumph laid the groundwork for the establishment of the Mughal Empire in India.
- Despite conquering Delhi and Agra, Babur still needed to subdue the Rajputs and the Afghans.
Babur’s Tactics of Tulughma and Araba
- Tulughma involved dividing the entire army into various units, including the Left, Right, and the Center.
- Further subdivisions of the Left and Right divisions into Forward and Rear divisions allowed a small army to surround the enemy from all sides.
- Araba
- The Center forward division was equipped with carts (Araba) placed in rows facing the enemy and tied together with animal hide ropes.
Battle of Khanwa (AD 1527)
- Rana Sanga of Mewar initially perceived Babur as an invader intending to plunder wealth. However, upon realizing that Babur aimed to establish his rule in India, Rana Sanga considered him a threat to his territory. Consequently, Rana Sanga decided to expel Babur from the country.
- Alongside the Rajput clans, Rana Sanga forged a formidable alliance with other Afghan leaders.
| Babur devised a defensive strategy that incorporated artillery-equipped fortified camps. Employing infantry and cannons simultaneously, he delivered a powerful blow to his opponents, who lacked firearms. |
- Ultimately, the Battle of Khanwa concluded with the defeat of Rana Sanga.
- The battle proved decisive and underscored the superiority of Mughal weapons over the Rajputs.
Battle of Chanderi (AD 1528)
- In AD 1528, the Battle of Chanderi unfolded between Babur and Medini Rai, the ruler of Malwa Rajput. The conflict arose when Babur sought control over the administrative center of the Malwa Kingdom, the fort at Chanderi.
- Babur, on his journey to Chanderi, proposed offering Shamshabad to Medini Rai in exchange for Chanderi as a peace gesture. However, Rai declined the offer.
- Following the rejection, a determined Babur captured the outer fort of Chanderi with his army.
- The Battle of Chanderi marked a significant turning point in the region, leading many Rajput kings to surrender and accept suzerainty under Babur.
Battle of Ghaghra (AD 1529)
- Fought in AD 1529, the Battle of Ghaghra played a crucial role in the Mughal Empire’s quest for the conquest of India.
- The Battle of Ghaghra took place between the Mughal forces, led by Babur, and the Sultanate of Bengal under Sultan Nusrat Shah.
| This battle marked the final major engagement of Babur, who subsequently focused on consolidating power, engaging with Jagirs, and dealing with royal nobles. |
Significance of Babur’s Invasion
- The North Indian empire, encompassing Kabul and Kandahar, played a pivotal role in enhancing India’s international trade connections with China and the Mediterranean seaports.
- Babur’s victories revived the Central Administrative System of the region. He introduced a governance concept focused on the strength and prestige of the crown, minimizing religious interference.
- Utilizing powerful artillery, though expensive, reshaped the dynamics of warfare, leading to the decline of small kingdoms that couldn’t afford such technology.
- As the first Muslim Emperor of India, Babur broke the tradition of rulers owing allegiance to the Caliph, elevating the position of the crown. He formally declared himself as Padshah.
- Pioneering the foundation of a Secular State, Babur set the precedent for a Muslim king in medieval India.
- Babur’s innovative warfare tactics demonstrated a novel approach to Indian chiefs and soldiers, introducing gunpowder, which became extensively used in warfare after the First Battle of Panipat.
- While Babur’s conquests laid the groundwork for a vast empire, his poor administrative skills hindered the consolidation of the territories he acquired.
Humayun (AD 1530-1556)
- Born in Kabul on 17th March 1508, Humayun succeeded his father, Babur, to the throne in Agra. Having gained battle experience at the pivotal War of Panipat in 1526, a battle that played a crucial role in establishing the Mughal Empire, Humayun faced numerous challenges upon ascending the throne.
- After becoming emperor, Humayun divided the Mughal territories among his three brothers – Kamran, Askari, and Hindal. The initial years of his rule were marked by administrative instability, a depleted treasury, and the ambitions of the nobles. The financial system was weak, and predatory Afghan forces posed a threat.
- In 1528, Humayun was appointed the Governor of Badakhshan, a region spanning South Tajikistan and North Afghanistan. Despite initial victories, including capturing the Kalinjar fortress and defeating Sultan Mahmud Lodi and Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, Humayun’s success was short-lived due to his weak character.
- The rising power of Sher Khan (later Sher Shah) in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh prompted Humayun to take action. Despite defeating the Afghans at Daurah in 1532 and besieging the Fort of Chunar, he suffered a significant setback in the Battle of Bilgram (Kannauj) in 1540 against Sher Shah Suri. This defeat compelled Humayun to flee to the Safavid Empire in Persia for refuge.
| Humayun sought assistance from the Safavid king, and with their support, he eventually triumphed over his brothers Askari and Kamran. In 1545, he conquered Kandahar and Kabul but refused to cede control of Kandahar to Persia. In 1555, Humayun reclaimed Agra and Delhi after defeating the forces of Sikandar Shah Suri. |
- In AD 1555, Humayun secured victory over the Afghans, only to pass away six months later in AD 1556 due to a fall from the staircase of his library. Despite his kindness and generosity, Humayun was not renowned for his military prowess and leadership. He had a penchant for painting and composed poetry in the Persian language.
Humayun’s Military Campaigns
Humayun undertook notable military campaigns, including the following:
Expedition of Kalinjar (AD 1531):
- Six months into his reign, Humayun besieged the formidable Kalinjar Fort in Bundelkhand. This fort, part of the defensive chain protecting Agra from the South, surrendered to Humayun after a month-long siege.
- The Chandela ruler accepted Humayun’s suzerainty and handed over Kalinjar, retaining the fort in exchange for 12 tonnes of gold.
Battle of Dauhariya (AD 1532):
- In AD 1532, at Daurah on the River Gomti, Humayun confronted and defeated Afghan forces under Biban and Bayazid. These forces had taken control of Bihar and captured Jaunpur in Eastern Uttar Pradesh.
- The victory at Dauhariya marked the breaking of Afghan opposition, with Sheikh Bayazid meeting his demise.
Siege of Chunar (AD 1532):
- In the same year, AD 1532, Humayun captured the strategic Chunar Fort, then held by Sher Shah Suri and known as the Gateway of Eastern India.
- Despite the victory, Humayun chose not to pursue the routed Pathans. Instead, he accepted Sher Shah’s submission, who pledged loyalty to the Mughals and sent his son as a hostage.
- Consequently, the fort was returned to Sher Shah Suri, influenced by the apprehension of Bahadur Shah’s ambitions to conquer Delhi.
War with Bahadur Shah (AD 1535-36)
- During the years AD 1535-36, Humayun engaged in wars against Bahadur Shah and successfully annexed the territories of Sarangpur, Mandesar, the Fort of Mandu, Champaner, and Diu. This conquest marked the culmination of Humayun’s expansion in Central India.
Battle of Chausa (AD 1539)
- Humayun faced Sher Shah Suri in the Battle of Chausa in AD 1539, resulting in Humayun’s defeat.
- Sher Shah Suri capitalized on this victory to march on Delhi and Agra, subsequently capturing both.
Battle of Kannauj (AD 1540)
- In the Battle of Kannauj in AD 1540, Sher Shah Suri decisively defeated Humayun.
- Afghan forces, led by Sher Shah, effortlessly overpowered Humayun’s army, causing significant damage.
- Following this defeat, Sher Shah annexed the throne of Kannauj, solidifying his control over Delhi, while Humayun sought refuge in Iran.
- This defeat marked the beginning of Humayun’s 15-year exile and the rise of the Sur Empire.
The Sur Empire (AD 1540-1555)
- The period from AD 1540 to 1555, marked by Sher Shah Suri’s rule, is known as the Sur Empire, representing a hiatus in Mughal Empire history.
Sher Shah Suri
- Born in Sasaram (Bihar) in AD 1486, Sher Shah, initially named Farid, was one of the eight sons of Hassan Khan, a minor Afghan Jagirdar.
- Farid studied Literature, Poetry, and History in Jaunpur before entering administration.
- The founder of the Sur Empire, Sher Shah began his career by managing his father Hasan’s Iqta at Sasaram in Bihar.
- Later, he joined the court of Afghan ruler Bahar Khan Lohani in Bihar, earning the title Sher Khan for his bravery.
- After defeating Humayun in AD 1540, Sher Shah ascended as the sovereign ruler and assumed the title of Sher Shah.
Conquests of Sher Shah
| Years | Territories | Specifics |
| AD 1544 | Samel | Defeated Maldeo, the ruler of Marwar. |
| AD 1545 | Kalinjar | Sher Shah captured fort, but died due to an accidental explosion. |
The Administrative System of the Sur Empire
- The organizational framework of Sher Shah’s administration is elucidated by his historian Abbas Khan Sarwani in the book “Tarikh-l-Sher Shahi.”
Central Administration
| Departments | Heads | Works |
| Diwan-i-Wizarat | Wazir | Financial matters |
| Diwan-i-Arz | Arz-i-Mamalik | Military department |
| Diwan-i-Insha | Dabir | Secretariat |
| Diwan-i-Risalat | Sadr | Religious and foreign matter |
| Diwan-i-Barid | Barid-i- Mamalik | Intelligence department |
| Diwan-i-Qaza | Qazi | Justice department |
| Diwan-i-Saman | – | Royal household department |
Local Revenue Administration
- The provinces were subdivided into Sarkars, with Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran (responsible for law and order) and Munsif-i-Mansifan (overseeing local revenue) at the helm. Sarkars were further divided into Parganas, led by Shiqdars and Munsif or Amin.
- Parganas were then divided into villages under the leadership of headmen.
Land Revenue Administration
- Sher Shah’s Land Revenue Policy stands as a significant milestone in the history of the Indian Agrarian System.
- Following a comprehensive land survey, Sher Shah implemented a system where land revenue was settled directly with the cultivators.
- Peasants were required to pay Jaribana (survey charge, i.e., 2.5%) and Muhasilana (tax collection charge, i.e., 5%).
Some notable features of Sher Shah’s land administration included:
- Assessment of land revenue based on the measurement of land. The Sikandari Gaja (32 inches) was established as the base for land measurement.
- Creation of schedules outlining crop rates determined by the quality of the land.
- Classification of land into three categories based on yield (good, bad, and middling).
- Computation of the produce from the three types of land, with 1/3rd of their average fixed as the land revenue, payable either in cash or kind.
- Clear definition of rights and liabilities of tenants through documents known as Pattas (title deeds) and Qabooliyats (deeds of agreement), ensuring each peasant knew their obligations.
Military Administration
- Abolition of tribal levies and the initiation of direct recruitment of soldiers. Payment of soldiers’ salaries in cash.
- Maintenance of descriptive rolls of soldiers (chehra) and branding of horses (dagh).
- Establishment of cantonments in various locations with a garrison posted in each.
Law and Order
- Hearing of civil cases for Pargana by Amir and criminal cases by a Qazi or Mir-i-Adal.
- Introduction of the principle of local responsibility for local crimes, where Muqqadams (Headmen) were held accountable for failing to find culprits.
- Sher Shah emphasized justice and equality, implementing harsh criminal laws with severe punishments.
- Village headmen and local chieftains were made responsible for any crimes occurring in their respective areas.
The Sur Architectural
- Sher Shah’s prowess extended to architecture, and he commissioned the construction of saris (rest houses) along roads for the convenience of traders and travelers.
- Aliwal Khan, Sher Shah’s chief architect, crafted notable structures, including the tomb of Hasan Khan (Sher Shah’s father) and an octagonal mausoleum at Sasaram, constructed from Chunar sandstone.
- Another significant architectural contribution is the Old Fort (Purana Quila) in Delhi, featuring surviving monuments like the Qilai-Kuhna Masjid and the Sher Mandal library.
Development of Infrastructure
Sher Shah prioritized enhancing communication through road construction. Key roads include:
- Grand Trunk (GT) Road, spanning from Sunargaon in East Bengal to Peshawar.
- The road from Agra to Multan via Burhanpur and Delhi.
- The road from Multan to Lahore.
- The road from Mandu to Agra.
- The GT Road was particularly vital, earning the designation of the empire’s arteries.
- Sher Shah introduced a regular postal service and attempted to standardize weights and measures.
Reforms by Sher Shah
- Sher Shah implemented noteworthy currency reforms, issuing a large number of silver coins (dam) and eliminating old and mixed metal currency.
- The silver rupia, sans its inscription, remained in use until AD 1835, forming the basis of later British-Indian currency.
- Other reforms involved customs duty collection on goods twice—upon entering the country and at the time of sale. Local headmen and zamindars were held responsible for any loss of merchants’ goods on roads.
Humayun’s Restoration (AD 1555-56)
- In his exile in Persia, Humayun received military support from Shah Tahmasp, aiding him in capturing Kabul and Kandahar (AD 1554) from his brother Kamran.
- Turning his attention back to India to reclaim his lost throne, Humayun, with the assistance of capable officer Bairam Khan, defeated the feeble rulers of the Sur Dynasty, regaining control over Agra and Delhi in AD 1556. Tragically, he died in an accidental fall from the staircase of his library in Delhi the same year.
- Humayun’s wife, Hamida Bano Begum, commissioned a splendid mausoleum near his fort in Delhi. This structure marked a new architectural phase in North India, with its most notable feature being the magnificent marble dome.
- Humayun’s Tomb, recognized as a UNESCO Site, was erected by his widow Hamida Bano Begum.
- A notable aspect of his return to power was the infusion of Persian influences into India. Accompanied by Persian scholars and artists, Humayun gradually introduced Persian as the court language.
- Bringing two painters, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad, with him to India, they gained fame during Akbar’s reign.
- Humayun’s sister, Gul Badan Begum, penned his biography, Humayunnama.
Akbar (AD 1556-1605)
- Akbar, the third Mughal Emperor, ruled from 1556 to 1605, born in Amarkot in AD 1542.
- Young Akbar was abducted by his uncle Kamran during Humayun’s exile, but he received good treatment.
- Upon the capture of Kandahar, Akbar was reunited with his parents.
- Akbar was in Kalanaur, Punjab, overseeing activities against local Afghan separatists when Humayun passed away.
- He ascended the throne at Kalanaur in AD 1556 at the young age of 13 years and 4 months.
| Bairam Khan served as Akbar’s regent during the initial years of his rule (approximately AD 1556-1560) and was bestowed with the title Khan-i-Khanan due to his close association with Humayun. |
Bairam Khan’s Regency
- Bairam Khan represented Akbar in the Second Battle of Panipat (AD 1556) against Hemu, the Wazir of Adil Shah of Bengal, who led the Afghan forces.
- Under Bairam Khan’s rule, Mughal territories expanded from Kabul in the East to Musunpur and Ajmer in the West.
- Additionally, Gwalior was captured during this period.
- Being the most influential noble, Bairam Khan appointed his allies to key positions, sidelining senior nobles, which angered other influential courtiers.
- The situation worsened due to Bairam Khan’s growing arrogance. Upon his removal, Akbar gave him the option to continue serving at the court or retire to Mecca.
- Opting for Mecca, Bairam Khan was assassinated by an Afghan on his way to Patan.
Second Battle of Panipat (AD 1556)
- The Second Battle of Panipat witnessed a conflict between the Hindu ruler Hemu and Akbar’s army. This decisive battle, in the struggle for supremacy over Delhi between the Mughals and the Afghans, favored the Mughals. The victory solidified Mughal authority in North India, laying the foundation for their eventual conquest of the entire Indian subcontinent over the next three hundred years.
Expansion of the Empire
- Major territories under the sway of Uzbeks, Central Asian nobles, during the expansion of Akbar’s empire included Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Malwa.
- Between AD 1561-1567, these regions experienced multiple rebellions. Simultaneously, a Timurid insurrection led by the Mirzas posed a challenge to the emperor’s authority. Akbar successfully quelled these rebellions, forcing Mirza Hakim to seek refuge in Kabul, and the Uzbeks faced a complete defeat by AD 1567.
- In AD 1562, Baz Bahadur, previously appointed as a Mansabdar in Akbar’s court, was ousted from Malwa.
- The year AD 1564 witnessed a fierce conflict between Rani Durgavati and her son Vir Narayan, culminating in the annexation of the Gondwana region in Central India.
- In AD 1573, Akbar expelled Muzaffar Shah from Gujarat.
- The Battle of Haldighati in AD 1576 saw Man Singh’s Mughal army decisively defeating Rana Pratap Singh. Subsequently, many prominent Rajput kings acknowledged Akbar’s suzerainty after the defeat of Mewar.
- In AD 1576, the conquest of Bengal and Bihar was completed as Daud Khan, the Afghan king, faced defeat.
- The Khandesh region succumbed to Akbar’s forces in AD 1591, marking another addition to the expanding Mughal Empire.
Akbar’s Military Campaigns
| Against | Details |
| Malwa | The expedition against Malwa was led by Adham Khan, son of Akbar’s foster-mother, Maham Anga. Baz Bahadur was badly defeated on AD 1561. |
| Garh-Katanga | The kingdom of Garh-Katanga (Northern Madhya Pradesh) was under Sangram Shah. Mughal Governor of Allahabad Asaf Khan defeated the Gonds decisively. |
| Chittor | A major step in his campaign against the Rajput states was the siege of Chittor ruled by Rana Udai Singh. Chittor fell on AD 1568 after a gallant siege of six months. In honour of the gallant Jaimal and Patta, two stone statues erected by Akbar at the gate of Fort of Agra. |
| Against | Details |
| Mewar | In 1572, Rana Pratap succeeded Rana Udai Singh in Mewar. Many embassies were sent by Akbar to accept Mughal suzerainty but failed. In 1576, under Raja Man Singh, Mughal forces defeated Mewar. |
| Gujarat | In 1572, at Surat, Akbar assaulted the Mirzas with the help of Man Singh and Bhagwant Das of Amber. The Mirzas were defeated and Gujarat came under Mughal control. |
| Bengal | The Afghans under Daud Khan had continued to dominate Bengal and Bihar. For the first time, Akbar advanced with a strong flotilla of boats, and in a stiff battle in Bihar in AD 1576, Daud Khan was defeated by the Mughals. |
| Ahmednagar | The Mughal invasion was led by Prince Murad, the Governor of Gujarat, and by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana against Chand Bibi. The two sides, in the end, came to an agreement in AD 1596. Mughal suzerainty was also recognized. |
| Khandesh | The Fort of Asirgarh in Khandesh was reputed to be the strongest fort in the Deccan. After a tight siege, it surrendered on AD 1601 to Mughals. Prince Daniyal, the youngest son of Akbar, concluded peace with Murtaza Nizam Shah II. |
Conquest in Deccan
- In AD 1593, the Mughals initiated a siege on Ahmednagar, a city defended by Chand Bibi. Although a treaty was signed, bringing about a temporary peace, the situation took a turn when Chand Bibi was killed by her own people, leading to the violation of the treaty terms. Ultimately, Ahmednagar was annexed in AD 1600.
- Following this, the Fort of Asirgarh fell under Mughal control, and Khandesh was annexed in AD 1601, representing the pinnacle of Akbar’s conquests.
Rebellions during His Reign
- In AD 1572, Gujarat witnessed several uprisings against Mughal rule led by Ikhtiyar ul Mulk and Muhammad Hussain Mirza. Subsequently, in AD 1573, Akbar swiftly marched from Agra to Ahmedabad, reaching the destination in just 10 days, and successfully quelled the uprising.
- The years AD 1580-1581 saw various wars erupting in Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, and the North-Western regions. Akbar’s army, under the leadership of Raja Todar Mal and Shaikh Farid Bakshi, managed to bring an end to these conflicts.
- The Mughal Empire faced a formidable challenge from the Afghans, particularly the Roshaniya faction, a Suli sect founded by Pir Roshanai and led by Jalala. This group disrupted access to the Khyber Pass region. In response, Akbar assigned the task of quelling the revolt to Raja Todar Mal and Raja Man Singh after the unsuccessful attempts by Zain Khan, Raja Birbal, and Sayid Khan Gakhar, who lost their lives in the process.
Akbar Rajput Policy
- Akbar’s approach towards the Rajputs played a crucial role in the expansion and consolidation of the Mughal Empire, recognizing that their support was essential for establishing a lasting rule in India. Acknowledging the Rajputs’ qualities such as chivalry, faithfulness, bravery, and combat skills, Akbar chose to befriend them rather than antagonize them.
Features of the policy
- The features of Akbar’s Rajput policy included efforts to establish friendly ties through matrimonial alliances. Akbar particularly emphasized forging marriage connections with Rajput Kings, leading to favorable relations with rulers from Ambar, Bikaner, and Jaisalmer, who married off their daughters to the Mughal Emperor.
- The appointment of Rajputs to significant positions, with individuals like Raja Todar Mal, Raja Birbal, Raja Bihari Mal, Bhagwan Dass, and Man Singh among Akbar’s closest confidants, showcased the importance given to the Rajputs in the administration.
- Akbar ensured equal treatment for the Rajputs, granting them equal status within the empire. He also respected their religious independence, allowing them the freedom to build temples, worship, and celebrate their festivals without interference.
- The inclusion of Rajputs in the Mughal army was notable, with reports suggesting that they held over 20 percent of the posts, further strengthening the ties between the Mughals and the Rajputs.
- Akbar refrained from meddling in the internal administration of the Rajput Kingdoms. He also abolished the Jizya tax, which was imposed on non-Muslims by Muslim rulers.
Akbar Religious policy
- Akbar’s approach to religion was marked by liberal ideas and policies that promoted understanding and equality among people of different faiths.
- Despite practicing Islam, Akbar demonstrated a profound respect for other religions.
- He actively engaged in studying various faiths, inviting scholars from Hinduism, Parsis, Jainism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam to engage in religious discussions before him.
- Akbar’s commitment to maintaining peace and harmony among people of diverse faiths was evident in his efforts.
Ibadat Khana
- In the pursuit of religious harmony, Akbar initiated the construction of the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) near the Jama Masjid in Fatehpur Sikri in 1575.
- Initially, only Sunnis were permitted to participate in religious discussions, with Abdul Qadir Badayuni and Abul Fazl serving as principal debaters.
- Both scholars had received training from Abul Fazl’s father, Shaikh Mubarak.
Special Invitees to Ibadat Khana
| Religions | Invitees |
| Hinduism | Maharaja Rana Purushottam and Devi |
| Zoroastrianism | Acquaviva and Monserrate (Both Portuguese) |
| Christianity | Acquaviva and Monserrate (Both Portuguese) |
| Jainism | Hira Vijaya Suri |
- Mission at Akbar’s Court (AD 1580-83) During the Kabul campaign in AD 1581 against his half-brother Mirza, accompanied by Akim, Abul Fazl has left a vivid account of the religious debates that took place during the journey.
Mahzar Nama
- In the Ibadat Khana, initial arguments were discussed. However, instead of resolving Akbar’s doubts, these discussions only fueled the emperor’s insatiable religious quest.
- As Akbar observed, these arguments were primarily aimed at defending the creeds of their respective doctrines. In AD 1579, the Mahzar Nama was declared, allowing the emperor to choose any interpretation in case of conflicting views among the debaters.
| The Mahzar Nama, initially proposed by Abul Fazl and Faizi’s father, asserted that the authority of the king superseded that of a Mujtahid (doctor of the faith). In case of a variation, the emperor’s decision should be binding on the Muslims of India. |
Din-i-Ilahi
- In AD 1582, Akbar propounded the Din-i-Ilahi, a syncretic religion with the aim of merging the best elements of the religions present in his empire. These elements were primarily drawn from Islam and Hinduism, with some influences from Christianity, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism.
- The fundamental purpose of Din-i-Ilahi was Sul-i-Kul or universal harmony, which guided all public policies of Akbar.
Tenets of Din-i-Ilahi (AD 1582)
- Initiation on Sundays by performing Paibos, where the emperor placed his feet on the head of the initiated.
- Expression of greetings in the form of Allah-o-Akbar and Jalle-Jalaluhu.
- Abstinence from eating meat and a requirement to give alms.
- Absence of scriptures or priests.
- Tauhid-i-Ilahi had four levels of devotion in ascending order: sacrifice of property, life, honor, and religion.
- Joining the order were Birbal, Abul Fazl, and Faizi. While Badauni believed Akbar was establishing a new religion, contemporary historians argue that he aimed to attain the status of Insaan-i-Kamil.
| In the Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl discusses several laws enacted by Akbar to secularize the state, which were deemed illegal by the orthodox Badauni. For example, Akbar prohibited polygamy and allowed a second marriage only under exceptional circumstances. |
Significance of Akbar’s Hindu Policy
- Extension and Strengthening of Akbar’s Empire: Cooperation from the Hindu majority contributed to the extension and strengthening of Akbar’s empire.
- Cultural Unity: Cultural unity between Hindus and Muslims was bolstered, bringing the two communities closer.
- Promotion of Scriptures: Akbar established a Translation Bureau to translate Sanskrit works into Persian
- Secular Feelings: Akbar’s religious policy fostered a broad religious outlook.
- Social Reforms: Akbar’s interest in Hindu society led to an awakening regarding the evils of practices like Sati. Widow remarriage was encouraged.
Sulh-i-Kul
- Akbar, deeply interested in religion and philosophy, listened attentively to Sufi, Shia divines, and scholars of other religions.
- Akbar introduced Sulh-i-Kul, signifying universal peace. He believed in the equality of religions, rejecting dominance of one over the other.
- Religious tolerance, respect, compromise, and balance were key principles of Sulh-i-Kul, aimed at maintaining peace and harmonious relationships among various religions.
Nine Jewels (Navratnas) at Akbar’s Court
- Following the footsteps of Chandragupta Vikramaditya of the Gupta period, Akbar maintained a court of nine distinguished persons who were known as Nine Jewels or Navratnas
Nine Jewels
| Names | Specifics |
| Abdul Rahim | – Nine Jewels – Got the title of Khan-i-Khana by Akbar. – Celebrated Hindi scholar. – Remembered for the compilation of Rahim Satsai (a collection of dohas). – Great scholar of Turki. – Translated Babur Nama into Persian. – Wrote two books on astrology: Kheta Kautukama and Dwawishd Yogavali. |
| Abul Fazl | – Profound thinker and writer. – Known for the authorship of Akbar Nama and Ain-i-Akbari. |
| Birbal | – A Brahman of Kalpi. – Known for his gift of humor and wit. |
| Fakir Aziao-Din | The original name was Mahesh Dass. – In charge of administration of justice at the royal court. – Died fighting with the Yusufzal tribe on the North-West frontier of India. |
| Mulla Do-Piyaza | – A poet laureate of Akbar’s court. – Credited with the translation of Leelawati into Persian. |
| Raja Man Singh | – Very close friend of Akbar. – Chief of the royal school (Pathasala). |
| Tansen | – Known as Sangeet Samrat. – Court singer of Akbar. |
| Todar Mal | – Known for his expertise in land revenue matters. – Evolved a Land Revenue System followed by Sher Shah, Akbar, and the Marathas. |
Art and Cultural Contribution of Akbar
- The pinnacle of Mughal architecture commenced in AD 1556 with Akbar’s ascent to the Delhi throne. Throughout his reign, red sandstone became a prominent material in construction.
- Under Akbar’s direction, the city of Fatehpur Sikri was meticulously planned, serving as the Mughals’ first capital from AD 1571 to 1585. Key monuments within Fatehpur Sikri include Buland Darwaza, Jama Masjid, Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khaas, Birbal’s house, and the Tomb of Saint Salim Chisti. Additionally, Akbar erected the Govind Dev Temple in Vrindavan
Language and Literature in Jahangir’s Era
- Classic works were revived, including Persian renditions of Mahabharata and Ramayana.
- Prominent literary contributions included Abul Fazl’s Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari, Abdul Qadir Badauni’s Kitab-ul-Tawarikh, and Nizam-ud-din Ahmad Harawi’s Tabaqat-i-Akbari.
- Sursagar by Sur Das in Brij Bhasha and Ramcharitmanas by Goswami Tulsidas in Awadhi showcased regional literary richness.
- Parsi Parkash, a Persian-Sanskrit dictionary, contributed to linguistic endeavors.
- Compilation of Guru Granth Sahib, a sacred Sikh scripture, occurred during this period.
- Hamzanama featured an impressive collection of 1,200 paintings.
- Mulla Daud’s Tarikh-i-Alfi, Prajna Bhatta’s Rajavalipataka (a historical account of Kashmir), and Nikantha’s Tajika Neelakanthi (an astrological treatise) added diversity to literary endeavors.
Jahangir’s Reign (AD 1605-1627)
- Prince Salim assumed the title Jahangir, upholding Akbar’s principles of religious coexistence.
- His marriage to Mehr-un-Nissa, later titled Nur Jahan, brought an accomplished lady into prominence.
Nur Jahan’s Influence
- Nur Jahan, along with her father Itimad-ud-Daula and brother Asaf Khan, formed a powerful alliance with Khurram.
- Coins were minted in her name, and she received the title of Badshah Begum, marking an unprecedented position for a woman in Mughal history.
- Despite her significant influence, Nur Jahan led a more private life in retirement until her death, with her final resting place in Lahore.
- During Jahangir’s rule, there were no territorial expansions in the Deccan region. Notably, his era welcomed the visits of two Englishmen, William Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe.
- William Hawkins faced challenges in securing the emperor’s approval for establishing an English factory in India. However, Sir Thomas Roe, sent as an ambassador by King James I, succeeded in obtaining consent for a British factory in Surat.
- Jahangir passed away near Lahore while traveling from Kashmir to Lahore, and he was laid to rest in Lahore.
Chain of Justice
- Jahangir is renowned for his golden Chain of Justice, a symbolic representation of his commitment to justice. This chain, adorned with 60 bells and weighing several maunds, was stretched between the Shahburj of Agra Fort and a stone pillar on the banks of the Yamuna River.
- Seekers of justice would pull this chain, presenting their complaints or petitions to the king, underscoring the significance of justice during his reign.
Jahangir’s Conquests
- Jahangir’s military campaigns targeted areas unconquered by Akbar, focusing on regions like Mewar and South India. Key conquests during Jahangir’s reign include:
Against the Rajputs of Mewar
- Jahangir employed a combination of military force and diplomacy to secure the surrender of Rana Amar Singh, the successor to Maharana Pratap.
- In AD 1613, Jahangir personally led the expedition, eventually culminating in a prolonged war that concluded with peace in AD 1615.
- As a gesture of reconciliation, the emperor installed life-size marble statues of Rana Amar Singh and his son Karan in the garden of his palace at Agra.
Deccan Campaigns
- Jahangir adhered to his father’s policy regarding the Deccan. In AD 1611, Ahmednagar, which had previously been partially conquered by Akbar, declared its independence under Malik Ambar, an Abyssinian slave.
- Jahangir dispatched his son Khurram to address the situation. By AD 1617, Ahmednagar was subdued, and Khurram was rewarded with the title Shah Jahan. However, the Mughals failed to establish a lasting rule, as Malik Ambar persisted in employing guerrilla tactics that thwarted Mughal invasions.
Capture of Kangra Fort
- Another notable military achievement during Jahangir’s reign was the subjugation of Kangra Fort, which surrendered to Mughal rule on 16th November, AD 1620.
Kandahar Campaign
- In AD 1622, the Mughals lost Kandahar to the Iranian king, Shah Abbas. Although Khurram was assigned the task of repelling the Persians, his procrastination led to Shahryar being commissioned to lead the campaign against Kandahar.
The Rebellion of Prince Khurram and Mahabat Khan
- Towards the end of Jahangir’s reign, a power struggle ensued between Prince Khurram and Prince Shahryar, Jahangir’s youngest son and Nur Jahan’s son-in-law.
- Prince Khurram captured Bihar and Bengal, receiving support from Asaf Khan in the ensuing civil war lasting over three years.
- The royal forces eventually recaptured Bengal and Bihar, prompting Khurram to seek refuge in Deccan.
| Khusrau, another contender for the throne, was imprisoned and blinded.Guru Arjan Dev, a well-wisher of Khusrau and the 5th Guru of the Sikhs, was executed. Khusrau died in AD 1621 while in the custody of Prince Khurram at Burhanpur. |
- In AD 1626, Mahabat Khan, who had been stripped of his office, spearheaded a revolt against Jahangir and his entourage as they crossed Jhelum en route to Kabul. Despite the attack, the diplomatic efforts of Nur Jahan successfully defused the situation.
Art and Cultural Contributions of Jahangir
- Jahangir left an indelible mark on the artistic and cultural landscape of his time. Notable constructions include the Moti Masjid in Lahore and the iconic Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar. Although Jahangir, based in Lahore, undertook fewer architectural projects than his predecessors, he played a pivotal role in the transition from sandstone to marble.
- Similar to his father, Jahangir exhibited a profound appreciation for the arts, particularly painting. The Mughal painting tradition thrived under his patronage. Jahangir was notably influenced by European art, instructing his painters to employ the single-point perspective technique used by European artists.
- Preferring paintings depicting events from his own life over illustrated fiction, Jahangir promoted portraiture and scientific studies of birds, flowers, and animals, often compiled in albums. One of his significant commissions was his autobiography, Jahangir Nama, which featured various paintings portraying unique themes such as spider wars. Renowned painters Mansur and Manohar were among those employed under his patronage.
Shah Jahan’s Reign (AD 1627-1658)
- Following Jahangir’s demise in AD 1627, Shah Jahan ascended to the throne in Agra, garnering support from the army and nobility.
- Foreign visitors like Bernier, Tavernier, and Manucci frequented his court during his rule. Shah Jahan reinstated the pilgrimage tax and revived the Jagirdari system.
- Often regarded as the zenith of the Mughal Empire, Shah Jahan’s reign coincided with the era of Louis XIV of France. It was during this period that the renowned Peacock Throne was crafted for the king.
Conquests under Shah Jahan
- In his initial year, Shah Jahan faced revolts from the Bundelas in Bundelkhand and an Afghan noble named Khan Jahan Lodi, a former Viceroy of Deccan.
- During Jahangir’s rule, Bir Singh Bundela had become a favorite by assassinating Abul Fazl. After his death, his son Jujhar Singh and grandson Vikramajit rebelled against the Mughals. The imperial forces relentlessly pursued and eventually killed them.
Ahmednagar (AD 1633)
- Despite Shah Jahan’s efforts for the complete conquest of the Deccan, it remained unfinished during his rule. After the death of Malik Ambar, his son, Fateh Khan, unable to secure the cooperation of Nizam Shahi nobles, surrendered to the Mughals, resulting in the annexation of Ahmednagar in AD 1633.
Other Deccan States
- Shah Jahan compelled the Kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda to acknowledge his overlordship, and both signed treaties with the emperor in AD 1636.
- Khandesh, Berar, Telangana, and Daulatabad were established as four Mughal provinces, ushering in 20 years of peace in the Deccan until renewed conflict in AD 1656.
Marathas, Portuguese, and Kamarup
- Shah Jahan enticed some Maratha leaders into his service, with Shahji Bhonsle being the most influential among them. Additionally, Shah Jahan expelled the Portuguese from Hooghly for abusing their trading privileges, engaging in piracy, and participating in the slave trade. The region of Kamarup was also annexed during this period.
Central Asia, Kandahar, and Transoxiana
- Shah Jahan’s strategy regarding Central Asia focused on securing possession of Kandahar, a region re-occupied by the Persians during Jahangir’s reign.
- Although Shah Jahan successfully regained Kandahar in AD 1638, he lost it again in AD 1649. Despite three subsequent expeditions to reclaim it, none proved successful, resulting in the permanent loss of Kandahar to the Mughal Empire. Shah Jahan, aspiring to conquer Badakshan and Balkh, sent forces in AD 1646, but the campaign failed, with over 5000 lives lost during invasions between AD 1638 and AD 1647.
- Shah Jahan, becoming more realistic, abandoned the dream of ruling over his ancestral lands.
Art and Cultural Contributions of Shah Jahan
- Under Shah Jahan’s reign, Mughal architecture reached its pinnacle. He founded Shahjahanabad, the seventh city of Delhi, known today as Old Delhi.
- After the death of his wife, Mumtaz Mahal, in Burhanpur in AD 1631, Shah Jahan commenced the construction of a mausoleum in her honor in Agra, known as the Taj Mahal. In contrast to his predecessors’ preference for red sandstone, Shah Jahan extensively used white marble in his constructions.
- Notable structures include the Sheesh Mahal in Agra, the Moti Masjid in the Agra Fort, and the Jama Masjid in Delhi, featuring pietra dura and intricate mirror work.
- Mughal painting flourished during Shah Jahan’s rule, albeit adopting a more conventional and conservative style. His paintings depicted subjects such as gardens and images that offered aesthetic pleasure, along with commissioned works portraying lovers in private moments.
- One of the most significant works created during his rule was the Padshahnama. Drawings of the courtiers and slaves were included in the Padshahnama, which described the king’s accomplishments.
Literature During Shah Jahan’s Reign
| Literature | Writer |
| Padshahnama | Abdul Hamid Lahori |
| Ras Gangadhar and Ganga Lahari | Jagannath Pandit/Maha Kavi |
| Shahjahanama | Inayat Khan |
| Ramayana and Prabodh Chandodaya | Munshi Banvali Dass |
- Majm-ul-Bahrain, meaning the “Mingling of the Oceans,” and Sirr-i-Akbar, the “Great Secret,” represent Dara Shikoh’s literary works, wherein he translated the Upanishads.
Struggle for the Throne
- A sudden illness befell Shah Jahan in AD 1657, leading to a civil war (AD 1657-59) among his four sons: Dara Shikoh (Crown-Prince), Shah Shuja (Governor of Bengal), Aurangzeb (Governor of Deccan), and Murad Baksh (Governor of Malwa and Gujarat).
- Shah Shuja and Aurangzeb formed a friendly alliance, while Murad also aligned himself with Aurangzeb.
- Amid the turmoil, Murad declared himself king, and Shah Shuja proclaimed independence in Bengal. The Battle of Bahadurgarh in AD 1658 saw Shah Shuja’s defeat at the hands of Dara’s son, Sulaiman Shikoh.
Dara Shikoh
- Dara Shikoh, Shah Jahan’s eldest son, was renowned for his inclusive religious views. Shah Jahan designated him as the heir and bestowed upon him the title Shahbuland Iqbal. Often referred to as “Little Akbar” by Stanley Lanepool, Dara Shikoh followed the Qadri Sufi Mulla Shah Badakshi and authored Mazm-ul-Behrain, meaning the “Confluence of Two Oceans.”
- Under his patronage, the Upanishads were translated into Persian and collectively named Sirr-i-Akbar.
The Battle of Dharmat
- In early AD 1658, Aurangzeb departed from Aurangabad and rendezvoused with Murad near Depalpur, close to Ujjain, where both armies encamped at Dharmat.
- Before this, the imperial forces led by Maharaja Jaswant Singh had already reached Ujjain to prevent the princess from proceeding to Agra. Unfortunately, in the ensuing battle, Jaswant Singh’s forces were defeated.
The Battle of Samugarh
- Subsequently, Aurangzeb emerged victorious against Dara in the Battle of Samugarh, near Agra. Following the siege of Agra, Aurangzeb declined all invitations from Shah Jahan, who was confined within the ladies’ palace along with Jahanara. Aurangzeb refused to see his father until Dara, declared an infidel, was killed.
| In Delhi, Aurangzeb formally proclaimed himself king with the title Alamgir, meaning “Conqueror of the Universe.” He was also known as Zinda Pir, the “Living Saint.” |
Battle of Deorai
- Meanwhile, Dara Shikoh was captured by the treacherous Afghan chief Malik Jiwan, who later handed him over to Jai Singh after the Battle of Deorai in April 1659. Shah Jahan spent eight years in confinement at the Agra Fort.
- In AD 1666, Shah Jahan passed away, having been attended by Jahanara throughout his captivity.
Aurangzeb (AD 1658-1707)
- As the third son of Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb’s reign marked the territorial zenith of the Mughal Empire.
- His rule saw a departure from Akbar’s policy of co-existence. Aurangzeb was a proficient player of the Veena.
| Due to his orthodox Islamic beliefs, he banned music in his court, ended Jharokha Darshan, prohibited the use of almanacs, and discontinued the practice of weighing the emperor. Aurangzeb engaged in battles of succession against his brothers. |
War of Successions
| Battle | Years | Significances |
| Battle of Bahadurgarh | February 1658 | Sulaiman Shikoh and Raja Singh of Amber defeated S Shuja. |
| Battle of Dharmat | April 1658 | Raja Jaswant Singh and Kar Khan were defeated by Mura and Aurangzeb. |
| Battle of Samugarh | May 1658 | Dara Shikoh was defeated by Aurangzeb. |
| Battle of Rupnagar | June 1658 | Murad was captured and executed. |
| Battle of Khajwah | January 1659 | Shah Shuja was defeated by Aurangzeb. |
| Battle of Deorai | March 1659 | Dara Shikoh defeated for the second time. |
Revoits During Reign of Aurangzeb
| Revolt | Causes/Descriptions |
| Cooch-Behar and Ahom (Assam) | AD 1661, Mughal Governor of Bengal, Mir Jumla, seized Cooch-Behar and marched up the Brahmaputra. Next year, he entered Garhgaon (near Gauhati), the Ahom (now Assam) capital. |
| Afghan Revolt | In AD 1667, Afghans revolted under the leadership of Bhagu. It was suppressed by Mughal subedar Amir Khan. In AD 1672, Afghans again revolted under the leadership of Akmal Khan Afridi. |
| Satnami Peasants of Punjab | The revolt by the Satnami peasants of Punjab in AD 1672 was sparked off by a minor dispute between a Satnami peasant and a Mughal foot soldier. |
| Bundelkhand | The Bundelas under the leadership of Champat Rai and Chhatrasal Bundela in Bundelkhand revolted against the reactionary policies of Aurangzeb. |
| Jat Revolt | The cruelty committed by Abd-un-Nabi, the faujdar of Mathura, aroused the Jats around Mathura and Agra to rise in revolt in AD 1699-70. |
| Sikh Revolts | Guru Tegh Bahadur opposed the religious policy of Aurangzeb openly and resented against it in a public meeting. Aurangzeb arrested him and forced him to accept Islam. Guru’s refusal led to his torture and finally his execution. Khalsa (the army of pure). Guru Gobind, the tenth guru of the Sikhs, reinterpreted the Sikh ideologies to justify military action and created. |
| North-Western India (Marwar) | The most serious revolt against Aurangzeb, however, was done by Rajputs of Jodhpur. |
Policies of Aurangzeb
- Aurangzeb, being a moralist, implemented policies in the court that aligned with Islamic principles. He replaced Akbar’s Ilahi year with the Muslim Lunar calendar and prohibited the cultivation of Bhang throughout the empire.
Religious Policies of Aurangzeb
- Known for his strict lifestyle and intellectual rigor, Aurangzeb earned the titles of Zinda Pir or Darvesh. As a highly orthodox Sunni Muslim ruler, he displayed minimal tolerance for religious matters. Singing and drinking were banned in his court, and public drinking was strictly forbidden. Muhtasibs were appointed to uphold Sharia or customary Islamic law and ensure no public consumption of alcoholic beverages.
- Aurangzeb went further to prohibit Kalma, an Islamic inscription on coins, as he believed it might get polluted when passed from one person to another. He also restricted the celebration of Nauroz, a festival observed by the Safavid rulers of Iran.
| AD 1679, Aurangzeb reintroduced the Jizyah tax (Poll tax) for the non-Muslim population, which Akbar had abolished in AD 1564. The Persian language was actively promoted during his reign, leading to the creation of several Persian compositions based on Indian classical music. |
- Aurangzeb abolished Akbar’s practices, such as Jharokha Darshan and the tradition of weighing the emperor with gold. He prohibited astrologers from creating almanacks and, in AD 1667, banned the use of firecrackers and fireworks in all states under his rule.
Rajput Policy of Aurangzeb
- Aurangzeb placed significant emphasis on cultivating friendship with the Rajputs. To garner more support from the Maharana of Mewar, he increased his position from 5000 zat to 6000 zat. The rulers of Marwar (Rathore), Mewar (Sisodiya), and Ajmer were close allies of Aurangzeb. Jaswant Singh was entrusted with the responsibility of suppressing revolts in Afghanistan, and Aurangzeb had more Rajput officials in his court than any other Mughal ruler.
Deccan Policy of Aurangzeb
- Aurangzeb’s Deccan policy dealt a severe blow to the Mughal Empire, resulting in a significant failure. The war against Golconda and Bijapur during the AD 1686-1687 campaign worsened the Mughal Empire’s position. Aurangzeb successfully occupied Bijapur and Golconda during this campaign, but the sentiments of Shia Muslims turned against the empire, leading to increased opposition.
- The campaign depleted the Mughal Government’s reserves, and soldiers faced starvation, despite the war not concluding. The struggle against Golconda and Bijapur also failed to pacify the Marathas, who remained a formidable challenge for Aurangzeb.
- Facing difficulties in achieving success through military means, Aurangzeb turned to diplomacy and bribery to deal with general adversaries. However, these efforts proved unsuccessful, and the Mughal army faced defeat, unable to penetrate the Fort and overcome its ruler.
- After conquering Golconda and Bijapur, Aurangzeb redirected his attention towards the Marathas, marking a new phase in his Deccan policy.
Prelims Facts
- Babur adopted the title of Padshah first at which place? Kabul (UPPSC (Mains) 2015)
- Which Mughal ruler adopted the Ottoman method of warfare in India? Babur IPSC (Mains) 2016
- During which battle the Mughal Emperor Babur declased Thad? –Battle of Khanwa (UPPSC (Mains) 2009)
- When did the Emperor Humayan Invaded Chunar Fort first time? -1532 (BPSC (Pre) 2008)
- Where was the battle between Shershah and Humayun fought on 26th June, 1539? Chansa (BPSC (Pre) 2018)
- With which medieval ruler would you associate the statement, I would have lost the empire just for a handful of millet’? -Sher Shah (UPPSC (Mains) 2007)
- Which ruler at first assumed the title of ‘Hazrat-e-Ala’ and afterwards Sultan?-Sher Shah Suri (BPSC (Pre) 2001]
- In which place Akbar was enthroned on getting the information of Humayun’s death? -Kalanaur (CGPSC (Pre) 2015]
- In whose reign was the Treaty of Chittor signed between Mughal and Rana of Mewar ? – Jahangir (UPPSC (Pre) 2008)
- Who was the Commander of Rana Pratap’s army in the Battle of Haldighati? -Hakim Khan (BPSC (Pre) 2015]
- Durgawati, who fought against Akbar, was the queen -Mandla (MPPSC (Pre) 20101
- The first Indian ruler to organise Hajj Pilgrimage from the state exchequer was -Akbar [IAS (Pre) 1994, UPPSC (Pre) 2001)
- The Education Centre of Delhi which was called Madrasa-e-Begum was established by was -Maham Anga (UPPSC (Mains) 2012)
- The Jain monk who stayed for a few years in the Court of Akbar and was honoured with the title ‘of Jagatguru – Hari Vijay Suri [UPPSC (Mains) 2002]
- The famous Kohinoor’ diamond was presented to Shah Jahan by…………. – Mir jumla (UPPSC (Mains) 2015]
- Which Mughal ruler established Kuwait-ul-Islam Aurangzeb Mosque? (HPSC (Pre) 2023)
- To whom did the Emperor Aurangzeb bestowed upon the tilte ‘Sahibat-uz-Zamani? – Jahan Ara (UPPSC (Pre) 2014)
- Which son of Aurangzeb revolted and weakened his father’s position against the Rajputs? -Muhammad Akbar [UPPSC (Mains) 2007)
- Which Mughal Emperor/Courtiers made arrangements for translation of Upanishads into Farsi Dara Shikoh [WBCS (Pre) 2002)
- Which Mughal Emperor patronaged Kavindra Acharya Saraswati of Banaras, a great scholar of Sanskrit and Hindi -Shah Jahan (UPPSC (Pre) 2022
- Which Emperor of Mughal empire had the highest number of Hindu generals in the Mughal army? Aurangzeb (UPPSC (Pre) 2000
UPSC NCERT Practice Questions
1. Conside the Blowing statements. The arrival of Babur in India led to the IAS (Pre) 2015
1, Introduction of gunpowder in the subcontinent.
2, introduction of the arch and dome in the region architecture.
3, establishment of Timurid Dynasty in the region.
Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
2. Alam Khan, one of those who invited Babur to invade India was UPPSC (Pre) 2003
(a) an uncle of Ibrahim Lodi and a pretender to the throne of Delhi.
(b) a cousin of Ibrahim Lodi, who was ill-treated and expelled from the country.
(c) the father of Dilawar Khan to whom cruel treatment was meted out by Ibrahim Lodi.
(d)a high official in Punjab province, who was very much discontented with Ibrahim Lodi’s treatments to his tribe.
3. Assertion (A) The Battle of Khanwa was certainly more decisive and important than the First Battle of Panipat.
Reason (R) The Rajputveer Rana Sanga was certainly a more formidable enemy than Ibrahim Lodi. IAS (Pre) 2001
Codes
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.
4. Arrange properly as per the dates of four important battles fought by Humayun, the names of battlefields are given below. BPSC (Pre) 1996
(a) Chausa, Devara, Kannauj, Sirhind
(b) Devara, Kannauj, Chausa, Sirhind
(c) Sirhind, Devara, Chausa, Kannauj
(d) Devara, Chausa, Kannauj, Sirhind
5. Where was the battle between Sher Shah and Humayun fought on 26th June 1539?
(a) Teliyagarhi
(b) Rohtas
(c) Chunar
(d) Chausa
6. With which medieval ruler would you associate the statement. “I would have lost the empire just for a handful of millet”? UPPSC (Mains) 2007
(a) Alauddin Khilji
(b) Muhammad Tughlaq
(c) Sher Shah
(d) Aurangzeb
7. The last expedition of Sher Shah Suri was against which of the following states?
(a) Kalinjar
(b) Malwa
(c) Kannauj
(d) Gaur
8. Which one of the following factors is not conducive in establishing Akbar as a nationalist? RAS/RTS (Pre) 2011
(a) Akbar had forsaken Islam
(b) Administrative unity and unity in law
(c) Akbar’s effort at cultural unity
(d) Akbar’s religious policy
9. The main aim of Akbar in fighting the Battle of Haldighati was RAS/RTS (Pre) 1992
(a) to subdue Rana Pratap
(b) to polarise Rajputs
(c) to satisfy sentiments of Man Singh
(d) imperial policy
10. Which of the following statements) is/are correct ? UPPSC (Pre) 2018
1. Akbar tried to fix the age of marriage for boys and girls.
2. Akbar gave freedom to girls to marry at their own will and not under parental pressure.
Codes
(a) Only 1
(b) Only 2
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
11. Assertion (A) Emperor Akbar marched towards Afghanistan with a huge army in AD 1581.
Reason (R) They were on the move to recover for Gana, their native country in Central Asia. IAS (Pre) 2003
Codes
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.
12. With reference to the Mughal Emperor Akbar, which of the statements) is/are correct? CGPSC (Pre) 2021
1. ‘Tansen’ is the title given to Ramtanu Pandey by Mughal Emperor Akbar.
2. Akbar was married with sister of Raja Man Singh.
3. ‘Ain-e-Akbari’ was written by Abul Fazl.
4. Raja Todar Mal was Chief Military Commander of Akbar’s army.
Codes
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 3 and 4
(c) Only 3
(d) Only 4
13. Which Rajput ruler continued his struggle for independence against Mughals and did not surrender? RAS/RTS (Pre) 2012
(a) Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner
(b) Rao Chandrasena of Marwar
(c) Raja Bharmal of Amber
(d) Maharana Amar Singh of Mewar
14. With the departure of Kandahar, the Mughal Empire reached a setback IAS (Pre) 1998
(a) from the point of view of natural resources.
(b) from the point of view of intermediate territory.
(c) from the point of view of communication system.
(d) from the point of view of the centre of strategic importance.
15. Who among the following foreign travellers visited India during the reign of Jahangir ? UPPSC (Pre) 2017
(a) Anthony Monserate
(b) Francisco Pelsaert
(c) Niccolo Manucci
(d) Francois Bernier
16. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched? UPPSC (Pre) 2010
(a) Babur – Battle of Khanwa
(b) Humayun – Battle of Chausa
(c) Akbar – Battle of Haldighati
(d) Jahangir – Battle of Balkh
17. Of the following, who had rebelled against the Mughal Emperor Jahangir? UPPSC (Pre) 2013
1. Asaf Khan
2. Khurram
3. Mahabat Khan
4. Khusrau
Select the correct answer by using the given codes.
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 2 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4
18.Who among the following shifted the capital of the empire from Agra to Delhi? UPPSC (Pre) 2002)
(a) Akbar
(b) Jahangir
(c) Shah Jahan
(d) Aurangzeb
19. Arrange the following wars of the Mughal chronologically. Period CGPSC (Pte) 2008
1. Battle of Ghaghra
2. Battle of Khanwa
3. Battle of Chausa
4. Battle of Samugarh
Codes
(a) 2, 1, 3, 4
(b) 1, 3, 2, 4
(c) 3, 2, 1, 4
(d) 2, 3, 1, 4
20. Who among the Mughal Emperors/Courtiers made arrangement for the translation of the Upanishads into Farsi? WBCS (Pre) 2022
(a) Babur
(b) Akbar
(c) Shah Jahan
(d) Dara Shikoh
21. Arrange the following wars in chronological order and select the correct answer from the codes given below. UPPSC (Pre) 2019
1. Battel of Sarnal
2. Battle of Bilgram
3. Battle of Dharmat
4. Battle of Jajau
Codes
(a) 2, 1, 3, 4
(b) 2, 3, 4, 1
(c) 3, 2, 1, 4
(d) 3, 12, 4
22. Which of the following Mughal Emperors spent a greater part of his reign to overthrow the Deccan kingdoms? UPPSC (Pre) 2006, 09, IPSC (Pre) 2012
(a) Akbar
(b) Jahangir
(c) Shah Jahan
(d) Aurangzeb
23. Which one of the following emperors had the highest number of Hindu Generals in the Mughal army? UPPSC (Pre) 2000
（a Humayun
(b) Akbar
(c) Nizamuddin
(d) Aurangzeb
24. Consider the following events of the reign of Aurangzeb and arrange them in chronological order. UPPSC (Pre) 2022
1. Battle of Deorai
2. Defeat of Shuja near Banaras
3. Battle of Samugarh
4. Victory at Dharmat
Select the correct answer from the codes given below.
(a) 1, 3, 4, 2
(b) 4, 2, 1, 3
(c) 2, 4, 3, 1
(d) 3, 4, 2,
Know Right Answer
1 (b)
2 (a)
3(a)
4 (d)
5 (d)
6 (c)
7 (a)
8 (a)
9 (a)
10 (c)
11(c)
12 (c)
13 (b)
14 (d)
15 (b)
16 (d)
17 (d)
18 (c)
19 (a)
20 (d)
21 (a)
22 (d)
23 (d)
24 (c)
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Q1: What is the significance of the Mughal Empire in Indian history?
A1: The Mughal Empire holds immense significance in Indian history as it marked a period of cultural, economic, and architectural achievements. It played a key role in shaping the socio-political landscape of the Indian subcontinent, fostering religious tolerance, and leaving a lasting impact on art and architecture.
Q2: Who was the founder of the Mughal Empire, and what were the circumstances of its establishment?
A2: The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur, a descendant of Timur on his father’s side and Genghis Khan on his mother’s side. Babur established the empire by defeating Ibrahim Lodhi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526. The circumstances involved Babur’s quest for reclaiming his Central Asian heritage and expanding his territorial influence in India.
Q3: What were the major contributions of Akbar the Great to the Mughal Empire?
A3: Akbar, one of the most prominent Mughal emperors, made significant contributions to the empire. He implemented policies of religious tolerance, introduced a centralized administration system, initiated land revenue reforms, and promoted art and culture. Akbar’s reign is often referred to as the “Golden Age” of the Mughal Empire.
Q4: How did the Mughal Empire impact Indian art and architecture?
A4: The Mughal Empire had a profound influence on Indian art and architecture. Notable examples include the construction of the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, and the Jama Masjid. The Mughals were patrons of the fine arts, including miniature paintings, and their architectural style incorporated a fusion of Persian, Timurid, and Indian elements.
Q5: What factors led to the decline of the Mughal Empire?
A5: The decline of the Mughal Empire can be attributed to various factors, including weak successors, internal strife, economic challenges, and invasions by external powers. The emergence of regional powers and the East India Company’s increasing influence also played a role. The culmination of these factors eventually led to the gradual decline and fragmentation of the once-mighty Mughal Empire.
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