UPSC NCERT Notes – Medieval History – Vijayanagara and Bahmani Kingdoms

The Bahmani and the Vijayanagara were the two great empires that arose in the Deccan. These kingdoms dominated South India and Deccan for more than 200 years. The control over Raichur Doab was the main issue that resulted in the long Bahmani Vijayanagara struggle.

The Origin of the Vijayanagara Empire:

• The Vijayanagara Empire witnessed the reign of four dynasties: Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, and Aravidu.
• Established in AD 1336 by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama Dynasty, the empire had its roots in the service of the Kakatiya ruler, Prataparudra II, by the two Sangama brothers.
• Following the Muslim conquest of the Kakatiya kingdom in AD 1323, the brothers served in the kingdom of Kampili in modern Karnataka as ministers in the royal court. However, they were later imprisoned and converted to Islam by Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• Having initially established control over Kampili on behalf of the Sultan, the Sangama brothers reverted to Hinduism under the guidance of Saint Vidyaranya. They declared independence and, in AD 1336, founded a new city on the South bank of the Tungabhadra, known as Vijayanagara (City of Victory) or Vidyanagara (City of Learning). The capital of the kingdom was Hastinavati (Hampi).
• The Bahmani Sultans emerged as rivals to Vijayanagara, leading to numerous battles. The contested regions included the Tungabhadra Doab (between Krishna and Tungabhadra), Krishna-Godavari Delta, and the Konkan areas of Marathwada.

Sources of the Vijayanagara Empire

Literary Sources	Sources	Information
Foreign Travelers’ Accounts	– Rehla or Tuhfat-un-Nuzzar by Ibn Battuta (Moroccan traveler) – Auktamalayada by Krishnadevaraya	Account of the empire under Harihara I.
Indigenous Works	– Manucharitam by Allasani Peddan – Gangadasa Pratapa Vilasam by Gangadhara	Polity and political ideas of the ruler’s society and caste system
Archaeological Sources	– Salu Vabhyudayam by Rajanatha Dindima	A contemporary drama deals with the siege of Vijayanagara city by Bahmanis and the Gajapatis of Orissa after the death of DEVA Raya IIHistorical Ecology of the Saluva Dynasty,
Inscriptions	– Bagpelosi copper plate inscription – Bitragunta grant of Sangama II – Channa Raya Patika inscription of Harihara II – Srirangam copper plates of Deva Raya II – Devulapalli copper plates of Immadi Narasimha –	Achievements of Harihara IGenealogy of 5 Sangama brothers Successful invasions of Bukka I Achievements of Bukka IGenealogy of Saluva Dynasty

Dynasties and Rulers Under the Vijayanagara Empire

• There were four dynasties that ruled over Vijayanagara i.e., Sangama Dynasty, Saluva Dynasty, Tuluva Dynasty, and Aravidu Dynasty.

VijayanagaraDynaes
Dynasty	Reign	Founder
Sangama Dynasty	AD 1336-1485	Harihara I and Bukka I
Saluva Dynasty	AD 1485-1505	Saluva Narasimha
Tuluva Dynasty	AD 1505-1570	Vira Narasimha

Major Rulers of the Sangama Dynasty

Notable rulers of the Sangama Dynasty include:

Harihara I (AD 1336-1356)

• The founder of the Sangama Dynasty, Harihara I actively participated in the confederacy led by Krishna Nayak of Warangal in AD 1344, aiming to oust Muslims from the Deccan.
• He established Anegundi (Karnataka) as his initial capital and later Vijayanagara (Hampi) as the second capital.
• Exploiting the decline of the Hoysala kingdom, Harihara and Bukka expanded their newly established realm, eventually bringing the entire Hoysala kingdom under their control by 1346.
• Within the first two decades, Harihara I extended his dominion south of the Tungabhadra River, earning the title of Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara (master of the Eastern and Western seas). He progressively expanded to encompass regions of the Konkan and Malabar Coast.
• The Vijayanagara kingdom absorbed the Kadambas of Banavasi along the Konkan Coast. Following Harihara I’s demise, his brother Bukka I assumed the throne as the fifth emperor of the Sangama Dynasty.

Bukka I (AD 1356-1377)

• Inscriptions depict Bukka I as the sovereign of the Eastern, Western, and Southern oceans.
• He played a crucial role in reconciling Jains and Vaishnavas by endorsing their freedom to worship according to their respective beliefs.

Bukka Raya I, the successor of Harihara I, achieved victory over the Sultan of Madura in AD 1347, gaining control over Goa. The rulers adopted titles like Gobrahmana Pratipalanacharya (protector of cows and Brahmins) and Hindurayasuratrana (upholder of Hindu faith).

• Bukka Raya expanded the empire’s territory by conquering numerous kingdoms in Southern India.
• In AD 1360, Bukka I successfully subdued the Reddis of Kondavidu and the Shambuvaraya kingdom of Arcot, consolidating control over the surrounding area, including Perakonda. By AD 1371, he further extended his influence by overthrowing the Madurai Sultanate, reaching as far as Rameswaram in the South.
• Bukka I’s son, Kamara Kampana, played a significant role in these campaigns, as documented in his wife Gangambika’s Sanskrit work, “Madura Vijayam.” During Bukka Raya’s rule, the Vijayanagara Empire established its capital at Vijayanagara on the South bank of the river.
• Bukka also engaged in conflicts with the Bahmani Sultans, facing challenges under the rules of Muhammad Shah I and Mujahid Shah Bahmani.
• Reports suggest that Bukka initiated a diplomatic mission to China during his reign. Following Bukka’s death around 1380, Harihara II assumed the throne.

Harihara II (AD 1377-1404)

• Bukka I’s son, Harihara II, became the ruler and was the first to adopt the legal titles of Raja Parmeshwara and Maharajadhiraja.
• Implementing a policy of expansion toward the Eastern sea coast, Harihara II led the Vijayanagara Empire into fresh conflicts.
• He expanded his dominion by defeating the Reddis of Kondavidu in battles for control of Andhra, securing territories between Nellore and Kalinga.
• After capturing regions like Addanki and Srisailam, along with most lands South of the Krishna River, Harihara II had to confront the Velamas in defense of Rachakonda (Telangana).

The ruler of Warangal captured Golconda and Kaulas from the Bahmani Sultanate, leading to a treaty that halted Vijayanagara’s Eastward expansion. An alliance between Warangal and the Bahmanis, lasting over 50 years, prevented Vijayanagara from annexing the Tungabhadra Doab

• Devoted to the worship of God Shiva, Harihara II held a strong religious inclination towards Virupaksha.
• Bahmani-Warangal Alliance Despite the alliance, Harihara II successfully maintained his position. His most significant achievement was the acquisition of Goa and Belgaum from the Bahmani kingdom in the West. Additionally, he organized an expedition to North Sri Lanka.

Deva Raya I (AD 1406-1422)

• After the death of Harihara II, Deva Raya I ascended the throne, and his reign saw a shift in the balance of power in the Deccan. He constructed a dam across the Tungabhadra to bring canals into the city, addressing the water shortage issue.
• Deva Raya I, a secular ruler, included thousands of Muslims in his army.
• Deva Raya I actively supported Kannada literature and architecture, exemplified by the construction of the Hazara Rama Temple, showcasing Deccan architectural brilliance. 
• The renowned Jain poet Madura wrote “Dharmanathapurana,” a Kannada literary work focusing on the life of the 15th Jain Tirthankara. Deva Raya I modernized the Vijayanagara army by upgrading artillery, recruiting skilled archers from the Turkish clan, and enhancing the military capabilities of Arabian and Persian horses and bowmen.
• In AD 1420, Italian merchant Nicolo de Conti visited the city, providing a vivid description. Deva Raya’s queen, Bhima Devi, studied under the Jain master Abhinava Charukirti Panditacharya and erected a shrine in Shravanabelagola’s Mangayi Basti in honor of Shantinatha, the 16th Jain Tirthankara, whom she revered.

Deva Raya II (AD 1422-1446)

• Considered the greatest ruler of the Sangama Dynasty, Deva Raya II employed a large number of Muslims in his service, granting them Jagirs. 
• He championed freedom of religion for Muslims, even placing a copy of the Quran in front of his throne.
• During the visit of Razzaq, the ambassador of the Persian monarch Shahrukh (son of Timur), to Vijayanagara, Abdur Deva Raya II earned the title of Gajabetegara, symbolizing his prowess as the Hunter of Elephants due to his victories against enemies. 
• The court of Deva Raya II included Sanskrit poet Gunda Dimdima and the mathematician Parameshvara.
• Under his rule, an invasion by the Reddis of Kondavidu was successfully repulsed, bringing all petty regions under his authority by AD 1432.
• In AD 1443, Deva Raya II crossed the Tungabhadra in an effort to recover areas south of the Krishna River, defeating Kalinga’s army and annexing Kondavidu, extending his authority up to Rajahmundry. Portuguese traveler Nuniz visited during this period and paid tribute to Deva Raya II.
• Around AD 1450, the Gajapati rulers of Orissa conducted attacks into Southern India, reaching as far as South Madurai, undermining Vijayanagara’s power. After Deva Raya II’s reign, internal struggles for the throne weakened the kingdom temporarily.
• Deva Raya II expanded his empire by conquering regional chieftains and the King of Quilon in Kerala. His capable commander, Lakkanna, invaded Ceylon, collecting large tributes. 
• The Zamorin of Calicut, as well as the kings of Burma ruling at Pegu and Tanasserim, paid tribute, demonstrating the fear and respect they had for Deva Raya II.

The Saluva Dynasty

• The Saluva Dynasty was founded by Saluva Narasimha, the Governor of Chandragiri. 

Saluva Narasimha (AD 1485-1491)

• Saluva Narasimha (AD 1485-1491) ended the civil war, bringing peace to the Vijayanagara Empire.
• He conquered the western part of Kannada, including Honnavan, Bakanur, and Bhatkal. Later rulers Timma and Imadi Narasimha were titular kings under the regency of Narasa Nayak.

 The Tuluva Dynasty

• Vira Narasimha, the founder of the Tuluva Dynasty, was a devout king who generously distributed gifts at sacred places, as noted by Nuniz. His brother, Krishnadevaraya, went on to become the greatest ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Krishnadevaraya AD 1509 to 1529

• Krishnadevaraya, reigning from AD 1509 to 1529, earned titles such as Andhra Bhoja, Andhra Pitamah, and Abhinav Bhoja. 
• His military prowess was remarkable, as observed by Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes during his reign. Krishnadevaraya was responsible for constructing renowned temples like Krishnaswamy, Hazara Ramaswamy, and Vittalaswamy.
• Engaging in wars against the Deccan Sultanates that emerged from the ruins of the Bahmani kingdom, Krishnadevaraya achieved decisive victories, notably in the Battle of Diwani AD 1509. His subsequent invasion of Raichur Doab led to a conflict with Ismail Adil Shah, the Sultan of Bijapur, whom Krishnadevaraya overcame around AD 1520, consolidating Bidar, Gulbarga, and Bijapur into Vijayanagara. This annexation of Raichur earned him the title “establisher of the Yavana empire,” as he released Sultan Mahmud, making him the de facto king.
• Krishnadevaraya’s successful Orissa campaign resulted in gaining control of Telangana by defeating Prataparudra, the Gajapati king. His cordial relations with the Portuguese led to the reception of ambassadors from King Albuquerque. Prime Minister Timmarusu, under Krishnadevaraya’s leadership, defeated Sultan Quli Qutb Shah of Golconda.
• The Vijayanagara army, under Krishnadevaraya’s command, surrounded Udayagiri Fort in AD 1512, leading to the starvation of the Gajapati army for over a year. Following the campaign, Tirumala Devi and Chinnama Devi, Krishnadevaraya’s wives, offered prayers in Tirupati.
• In AD 1518, a treaty was negotiated between Raya and Kalinga ruler Prataparudradeva. 
• As part of the agreement, the Krishna River was established as the border between the Vijayanagara and Gajapati Kingdoms, with Krishnadevaraya relinquishing all territories north of that river that the Vijayanagara Empire had previously controlled.
• Krishnadevaraya, recognized for his intelligence, was a staunch supporter of literature and the arts. Despite being a Vaishnavaite himself, he displayed respect for all faiths. 
• In Vijayanagara, he commissioned the construction of the renowned Krishnaswamy, Vittalaswamy, and Hazara Ramaswamy stone temples. Additionally, he initiated the construction of Rayagopurams, entrances to numerous significant South Indian temples, and undertook renovations of several existing temples. Krishnadevaraya also founded a new city named Nagalapuram near Vijayanagara.
• The ruler was not only a patron of the arts but also a prolific writer. He composed Amukthamalyadha in Telugu Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam in Sanskrit.

Krishnadevarays Ashtadiggajas

In Krishna Deva Raya’s court, the Ashtadiggajas (eight celebrated poets) flourished:

• Peddana wrote Manucharitam and Harikathasaransamu.
• Timma authored Parijatapaharavam.
• Madaya composed Rajasekhara Charitam.
• Dhurjate contributed Kalahasti Mahatyam.
• Surana penned Raghava Pandaviyam and Prabhavati Pradyuman.
• Tenali Ramalingam created Panduranga Mahatyam.
• Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra wrote Sakalamatasara Sangraharr.
• Rama Raja Bhushan, the eighth digger, wrote Kavyalankora Sangrahamu.

Achyuta Deva Raya (AD 1530-1542):

• Achyuta Deva Raya served as the ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire in South India.
• He succeeded his elder brother, Krishnadevaraya, in AD 1529.
• Fernao Nuniz, a Portuguese traveler and horse trader, spent three years in Vijayanagara during Achyuta Deva Raya’s reign, chronicling his experiences.
• Achyuta Deva Raya was a patron of scholars such as Chatu Vittalanatha Deva Raya (Kannada), Purandaradasa (Singer), and Sanskrit scholar Rajanatha Dindima II.

The Tiruvengalanatha Temple, also known as the Achyuta Raya Temple, was built during his rule.

Sadasiva Raya (AD 1542-1570):

• Sadasiva Raya ruled the Vijayanagara Empire in the 16th century.
• He managed to escape the control of the ambitious regent Raju but later faced the usurpation of the throne by Minister Rama Raya, who became the de facto ruler.

Aravidu Dynasty:

Founded by Tirumala, the Aravidu Dynasty’s last ruler was Venkatal.

Later Rulers of the Dynasty

• Deva Raya II, succeeded by his eldest son Malikarjuna, successfully defended his capital against a joint attack by the Bahmani Sultan and the Raja of the Hindu Kingdom of Orissa.
• Virupaksha Raya II, a Sangama Dynasty king, succeeded his weak uncle Mallikarjuna Raya in 1465.
• During his reign, the Saluva chief Narasimha of Chandragiri rose to prominence, resisting the Bahmani kingdom and the King of Orissa.

Decline of the Vijayanagara Empire:

• After Krishnadevaraya’s death, there was a period of confusion, marked by weak and incompetent rulers from the Aravidu Dynasty.
• Territories of Vijayanagara were seized by the rulers of Bijapur and Golconda, contributing to the empire’s decline.

Conflict between the Vijayanagara Empire and Bahmani Kingdom:

• One major point of contention between the Bahmani and Vijayanagara kingdoms was the control of the Raichur Doab, the fertile region situated between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers. This area boasted abundant natural resources.
• Other conflict zones included the Krishna-Godavari delta and the Marathwada area, both featuring sizable ports facilitating trade with neighboring countries. Notable among these were Goa’s port and the Konkan belt, which housed crucial trading hubs.
• The Marathwada region, known for its fertility, operated a port crucial for both export and import activities, particularly the import of horses from Iran and Iraq.
• While territorial and commercial factors were primary causes of conflict, underlying Hindu-Muslim tensions may have also contributed to hostilities between the Bahmani and Vijayanagara states.

Vijayanagara Administration:

• The Vijayanagara concept of kingship emphasized a form of absolute monarchy with a welfare state policy.
• The succession to the throne followed a hereditary system.
• Krishnadevaraya, in his book on Polity, “Amuktamalyada,” advocated that the king, with great care and to the best of his ability, should focus on protecting the good and punishing the wicked.

Central Administration:

• The Vijayanagara Empire had a Council of Ministers led by a Prime Minister, known as Mahapradhani, tasked with assisting and advising the king in administrative matters.

Officers of Council and their Departments

Officers	Departments
Dalavay	Commander
Vassal	Guard of the palace
Rayasam	Secretary/Accountant
Adaippam	Personal Attendant
Karlyakarta	Executive agents

Provincial and Local Government:

• The empire’s administrative structure comprised various units, including Mandalams or Rajyas (Provinces), Nadus (Districts), Sthalas (Sub-districts), and ultimately Gramas (Villages). The number and size of Mandalams fluctuated over time. Each province was overseen by a Governor, known as Mandaleswara or Nayaka.

Revenue Administration:

• The primary source of revenue was the land revenue collected from crown lands. This revenue was determined based on crop cultivation and the quantity of yield obtained. Typically, 1/6th of the gross produce was levied as revenue, although at times, this rate could be increased to 50%.
• Prostitution was subject to regulation and substantial taxation. Kaikkolas, a group of weavers and barbers, enjoyed tax exemptions. Private owners of workshops were required to pay a gratuity tax on their industries.

Some Important Revenue Terms

Economic Terms	Related With
Fawazil	Surplus extracted from the area
Mahsul	Collected revenue
Kismat	Subsidiary tax
Bhandarawada	The crown village
Manyam	Devadana
Devadana	Tax-free village
Amaram	Village granted to military chiefs (Nayaks)

Judicial Administration:

• The king ensured impartial administration of justice, presiding over the Sabha, the highest court of appeal.
• Village courts, caste panchayats, and guild organizations were also in place to adjudicate minor offenses such as the violation of caste rules and trade regulations.
• Cases were typically decided based on the principles outlined in Dharmasastras, serving as the foundation for the legal framework.

The Nayankara and Ayagar System

•  In the Nayankara system, military leaders were allocated parcels of land known as Amaram. These leaders, referred to as Nayaks of Palaiyagars, held revenue and administrative authority over their respective lands.
• Their responsibilities included maintaining specified numbers of elephants, horses, and soldiers, which were to be provided to the king during times of war. Additionally, they were obligated to contribute a specific sum of money to the central ex-chequer. The Nayaks enjoyed autonomy in their regions and were not subject to transfer.
• The Ayagar system played a crucial role in village administration. This system involved a group of twelve functionaries, called Ayagars, who oversaw all village affairs. These Ayagars were granted tax-free lands that they could enjoy in perpetuity.
• An essential aspect of the Ayagar system was that these officials held hereditary positions, and no land in the village could be sold or purchased without their permission.

Military Administration

•  The military was well-organized and efficient, featuring a standing army. Some Nadaprabhu (Incharge of Nadus), like the Gaudas of Bangalore, played a practical role in safeguarding borders from foreign invasions and quelling rebellious provincial Governors and vassals.
• Regular soldiers in the royal army received cash payments, while higher-ranking officers were rewarded with territories (Amaram) along with fixed revenue in lieu of salaries.

Travellers	Brief Descriptions
Ibn Battuta	Moroccan traveller, chronicled Harihara I’s reign in his book “Rihla” (also known as “Tuhfat-un-Nuzzar ft Gharaibul-Amsar Wa Ajaib-ul-Assar”).
Nicolo de Conti	Italian traveller, visited during the time of Deva Raya I.
Abdur Razzak	Ambassador of Shahrukh of Samarqand at the court of the Zamorin of Calicut, provided an account of Deva Raya II’s reign.
Afanasy Nikitin	Russian merchant, described the conditions of the Bahmani Kingdom under Muhammad III in his work “Voyage to India.”
Duarte Barbosa	Portuguese observer, offered a vivid account of the Vijayanagara Government under Krishnadevaraya in his book “An Account of Countries bordering the Indian Ocean and their Inhabitants.”
Domingo Paes	Portuguese traveller who provided a number of detailed accounts, including a glowing portrayal of Krishnadevaraya’s personality.
Marco Polo	Renowned traveller, arrived at India’s opposite extremity during his journey from China in AD 1290. Marco Polo was surprised to find tailors in peninsular India during his exploration.

Vijayanagara Society

• Allasani Peddana, in his Manucharitam, outlines the four castes present in Vijayanagara society.
• Viprulu or Brahmins adhered to traditional roles as teachers and priests.
• Rajulu or Rachavaru were commonly associated with the ruling dynasty.
• Matikaratalu or Vaishyas engaged in trade and commerce as merchants.
• Nalavajativaru or Shudras were primarily agriculturists, though some pursued various other professions.
• The tradition of having dancing girls associated with temples was also prevalent.

Women’s Status

• Women held an honorable position in Vijayanagara society.
• Some women were highly learned and achieved recognition as eminent laureates.
• According to the Portuguese writer Nuniz, women in the Vijayanagara Empire excelled in wrestling, astrology, accounting, and prophecy.
• Gangadevi, the wife of Kampana (one of Bukka I’s sons), authored Madura-Vijayam.
• Hannamma was a prominent scholar in the court of Prauda Deva.
• Tirumalamma was a distinguished Sanskrit poetess during the reign of Achyuta Raya.

Economic Conditions

The economic landscape during the Vijayanagara Empire can be characterized as follows:

Agriculture

• Agriculture thrived under the rulers’ policies, which aimed to promote farming across different regions of the empire. The implementation of a prudent irrigation policy was instrumental in boosting agricultural production.

Industries

• The agricultural prosperity was complemented by a variety of industries, with textiles, mining, and metallurgy being the most significant. Perfumery also emerged as another noteworthy industry. Guilds played a crucial role in regulating and overseeing industries and crafts.

Trade

•  Malabar, particularly the prominent port of Cannanore on the West coast, stood out as the most significant commercial hub.
•  Key exports included cloth, spices, rice, iron, saltpetre, and sugar, among others.
•  Notable imports comprised horses, elephants, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China silk, and velvet.

Coinage

• Vijayanagara emperors minted a substantial number of gold coins known as Varahas/Pagodas, named after the prevalent symbol of Varaha, the Boar incarnation of Vishnu.
• Harihara I and Bukka I featured the Hanuman symbol on their coins, while Krishnadevaraya’s coins depicted figures of Venkatesh and Balkrishna.
• Achyuta Raya utilized the Garuda symbol, and Tirumala adhered to the original Varaha on their respective coins.

Literature

Authors	Books
Krishnadevaraya	– Amuktamalyada (a book on polity) – Jambavati Kalyana
Allasani Peddana	– Manucharitam Harikatha Sarammsama
Tenali Ramakrishna	– Pandura Ngamahatyam
Dikshitar	– Commentary on Vedas
Vemana	– Vemanasatakas
Elugandi Peddana	– Translated Leelavati (a book on Mathematics)
Chamarasa	– Prabhulinglai
Virupaksha Pandit	– Chennabasva Purana
Kumara Vyasa	– Composed Mahabharata in Kannada
Bhimakavi	– Basava Purana
Dharajati	– Kalahastimahatyam
Madayya	– Rajasekhara Charitam
Ramabhadra	– Sakaramatasara Sangraham

The Bahmani Kingdom

• Founded in AD 1347 by Hasan Gangu, who served as the Governor of Deccan under the Tughlaqs, the Bahmani Kingdom established Gulbarga as its capital. Hasan Gangu assumed the title of Alauddin Hasan.
• The Deccan region was initially part of the provincial administration of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Muhammad bin Tughlag appointed Amiran-i-Sada/Sada Amir, responsible for overseeing the administration of 100 villages, in an effort to establish a stable government in the Deccan.
• From AD 1337, conflicts between the commanders of the Deccan and Delhi Sultanates intensified. This eventually led to the foundation of an independent state in the Deccan in AD 1347, with Gulbarga in the Karnataka province as its capital.

Famous Rulers of the Bahmani Kingdom

• Bahman Shah (AD 1347-58), also known as Zafar Khan/Hasan Gangu, was the founder of the Bahmani kingdom.
• Muhammad Shah I (AD 1358-75) established a Council of Ministers with eight ministers known as Ashta Pradhana. This concept later influenced the Marathas. 

Muhammad Shah I is renowned for organizing the Bahmani kingdoms and constructing the Jama Masjid in Gulbarga Fort and the Shah Bazar Masjid in Gulbarga town.

• Aladdin Mujahid Shah (AD 1375-1378), son of Muhammad Shah, was murdered by Masud Khan and Daud Khan.
• Firoz Shah (AD 1397-1422), hailed as the greatest king of his dynasty according to Ferishta.
• He engaged in a conflict with the Vijayanagara emperor, Deva Raya II, resulting in the latter’s defeat. Additionally, he established the city of Firozabad on the banks of the river Bhima.
• Possessing skills as a calligrapher and poet (with the poetic names Uruji and Firozi), Hazrat Khwaja Syed Muhammad Gesu Daraz was a Sufi saint deeply connected with the Bahmani kings and the people of Gulbarga.
• Ghiyath-ud-Din Shah (AD 14th June, 1397-15th November, 1397), also known as Ghiyas-ud-Din Tahmatan Shah and the son of Muhammad Shah II.

Mahmud Gawan served as the Prime Minister or Peshwa of Shamsuddin Muhammad Shah III from AD 1463-81, overseeing a resurgence of the Bahmani kingdom.

• Mahmud Gawan’s military conquests included regions such as Konkan, Goa, and the Krishna-Godavari delta during Muhammad Shah III’s reign, expanding the Bahmani kingdom significantly.
• He led a successful invasion against the combined armies of Orissa and Khandesh, introducing the use of gunpowder in the Battle of Belgaum against the Vijayanagara monarchs.
• Mahmud Gawan seized control of fertile areas like Bidar, Daulatabad, and Berar, using alliances and victories to establish Bahmani rule over the entire Western shoreline from Dabhol to Goa.
• To address rivalries among the nobles and strengthen the Sultan’s control over the provinces, Mahmud Gawan implemented internal administrative changes. He divided the kingdom into eight tarafs or provinces, each overseen by a tarafdar.
• He founded the renowned Mahmud Gawan Madrasa in Bidar, a three-story institution measuring 242 feet long, 222 feet wide, and 56 feet tall, with a vast courtyard and arches on either side.
• Mahmud Gawan, in addition to his administrative achievements, contributed to Persian-language poetry, with works like Riyaz-ul-Insha and Qanazir-ul-Insha. This period also saw the popularity of a new dialect, Dakhini du.

Administration of Bahmani Kingdom

Officers	Roles
Vakil-us-Sultan	– Equivalent to the Naib Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate
	– Served as a regent at times
Peshwa	– Attached to the Vakil
Wazir-i-Kul	– Minister; supervised the work of all ministers
Amir-i-Jumla	– Head of the Finance Department
Wazir	– Deputy Head of the Finance Department
Waziri Ashraf	– Overseer of financial affairs
Sadr-i-Jahan	– Responsible for foreign affairs and the royal court
Kotwal	– Head of the Judicial, ecclesiastical, and Charities Department
Tarifs	– Head of the Police Department
Tarafdari	– Provinces

Decline of the Bahmani Kingdom

• Persistent warfare between the rulers of Bahmani and Vijayanagara fueled instability in the region.
• The emergence of inefficient and weak successors post-Muhammad Shah III contributed to the fragmentation of the Bahmani Kingdom, paving the way for the rise of smaller entities within the Deccan Sultanate, such as Ahmadnagar, Golconda, and Bijapur.
• The rivalry between Bahmani rulers and foreign nobles further weakened the empire.

Battle of Talikota (AD 1565)

• On 23rd January 1565, the allied armies of Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golconda, and Bidar engaged in a decisive clash with the Vijayanagara ruler at Talikota.
• The Vijayanagara Kingdom suffered a defeat near the villages of Rakshasi and Tangdi during the Battle of Talikota.
• Sadasiva Raya, a puppet ruler, was in charge of the Vijayanagara kingdom at the time, with real power vested in his minister, Rama Raya. Rama Raya attempted to undermine the influence of the Deccan Sultanates by sowing discord among them. However, the alliance proved victorious, leading to the defeat of the Vijayanagara Empire.
• Upon entering the city, the victorious forces pillaged and destroyed the kingdom, laying waste to its treasures and infrastructure.

Independent Kingdoms of Deccan

• The Deccan Sultanates, consisting of Golconda, Bijapur, Bidar, Ahmadnagar, and Berar, were five distinct Muslim kingdoms that held sway over South-Central India during the medieval period. Positioned on the Deccan Plateau between the Vindhya ranges and the Krishna River, these kingdoms eventually separated from the Bahmani Sultanates, evolving into independent entities.
• Various kingdoms that emerged after the decline of the Bahmani kingdom are as follows:

Ahmadnagar

• The Ahmadnagar Sultanate occupied the Northwestern part of the Deccan Plateau, sandwiched between the Sultanates of Gujarat and Bijapur.
• Malik Ahmed Shah Bahri founded the Ahmadnagar Sultanate on 28th May 1490, after defeating the Bahmani army led by Jahangir Khan, also known as the Nizam Shahi Dynasty.
• Initially established at Junnar, the Nizam Shahi Dynasty later laid the foundation for the new city of Ahmadnagar in AD 1494.
• In 1574, Murtaza Shah annexed Berar, a move defended by Chand Bibi in AD 1596.
• Despite Ahmadnagar’s defeat after Chand Bibi’s death, other officials, led by Malik Amber, continued the resistance from the new capital, Paranda.
• Following Chand Bibi’s demise in AD 1599, the Mughal invasion was successfully repelled by the Ahmadnagar Sultanate.
• Murtaza Shah II ascended to the throne as Sultan in the year AD 1600, and subsequently, Khadki was designated as the new capital for the dynasty.
• In AD 1636, Aurangzeb, the Mughal ruler of Deccan, ultimately overthrew the Ahmadnagar Sultanate.

Bijapur

• The Bijapur Sultanate in South-West India was governed by the Adil Shahi Dynasty from AD 1490 to 1686. Fathullah Imad-ul-Mulk, the Governor of Berar at the collapse of the Bahmani Sultanate, asserted his independence in AD 1490 and founded the Imad Shahi Dynasty.
• Ala-ud-din, his successor, resisted Ahmadnagar’s aggression with assistance from Bahadur Shah, the Sultan of Gujarat.
• Darya, the next ruler, attempted to align with Bijapur against Ahmadnagar’s aggression but was unsuccessful. In AD 1574, Tufal Khan overthrew Burhan Imad Shah, the last ruler of the Imad Shahi Dynasty, and Ahmadnagar Sultanate annexed it in the same year.
• Following the Battle of Talikota, Bijapur gained control of the Raichur Doab and subsequently captured Bidar in AD 1619.
• The Marathas, under Shivaji’s leadership, successfully ousted the Bijapur Sultanate. In AD 1686, Aurangzeb ultimately seized control of the sultanate.

Ibrahim Adil Shah II

• Regarded as the greatest ruler of the Bijapur Sultanate, Ibrahim Adil Shah II authored a book called Kitab-i-Navras. Popularly known as Jagadguru Badshah, he extended patronage to all religions.

Berar

• Fathullah Imad-ul-Mulk, originally a Kannadiga Hindu, established the Berar Sultanate in AD 1490. Kidnapped by Bahmani soldiers during his youth, he underwent conversion to Islam.
• As the Governor of Berar, he founded the Imad Shahi Dynasty, declaring independence and fortifying Gavilgad and Narnala. The capital was established in Achalpur (Ellichpur). However, Berar faced consistent attacks from Ahmadnagar, ultimately leading to its annexation in AD 1574.

Golconda

• In the early 16th century, Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk, originally from Persia, migrated to Delhi with a small group of family and friends.
• Moving to the Deccan in the South, he served under Muhammad Shah I of Bahman, establishing their capital initially at Golconda and later shifting to Hyderabad from AD 1591 onwards.
• Following the dissolution of the Bahmani Sultanate in AD 1518, Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk seized Golconda, becoming the ruler of Telangana.
• Proclaiming independence, he assumed the name Qutb Shah, establishing the Qutb Shahi Dynasty. Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk captured forts in Warangal, Kodanpalli, Eluru, and Rajahmundry.
• The Golconda Sultanate endured for 171 years before Aurangzeb annexed it in AD 1687.

Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah

• Proficient in Arabic, Persian, and Telugu, Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah was an accomplished scholar who laid the foundation of the city of Hyderabad.
• He was the architect behind the construction of Char Minar and Makkah Masjid. His poetic compositions were compiled into Kulliyat-e Quli Qutub Shah.

Bidar

• Established by Qasim Barid I in AD 1528, Bidar was the smallest among the Deccan Sultanates. The Barid Shahi Dynasty had its roots in AD 1492 when Qasim Barid served the Bahmani Sultanate. Over time, the Barids gained power and effectively ruled the Bahmani Sultanate, with puppet sultans occupying the throne.
• In AD 1542, Ali Barid Shan I succeeded Amir Barid as the first king of Bidar to assume the royal title of Shah. Ali Barid, along with other Deccan Sultans, fought in the Battle of Talikota in AD 1565 against the Vijayanagara Empire.
• Amir Barid III became the Shah in AD 1609 and confronted the Mughals led by Malik Amber in AD 1616. In AD 1619, Ibrahim Adil Shah II of Bijapur overthrew him, integrating Bidar into the Bijapur Sultanate.
• The Barid Shahi monarchs’ architectural endeavors primarily focused on garden tombs. The tomb of Ali Barid Shah (AD 1577) stands as a significant structure in Bidar.
• Built during Ali Barid Shah’s reign, the Rangin Mahal in Bidar is a meticulously adorned courtly structure. Other noteworthy monuments from that period include the tombs of Qasim II and Kali Masjid.

Bidri Work

• Bidar holds the distinction of being the birthplace of Bidri, a significant form of metalwork. These metalworks primarily featured black zinc, embellished with intricate silver motifs.

Prelims Facts

• Which kingdom was founded by two brothers Harihara and Bukka? – Kingdom of Vijayanagara [JPSC (Pre) 2021
• The lady poet who described the victorious expeditions of her husband in her work Madhura-Vijayam was Ganga Devi [UPPSC (Pre) 2000]
• Vijayanagara rulers claimed to rule on behalf of which god? – Virupaksha [HPSC (Pre) 2023]
• Who was the patron deity of Vijayanagara empire? – Virupaksha [HPSC (Pre) 2023]
• With whom the king of Vijaynagara Krishnadeva Raya fought the battle of Golconda? – Quli Qutb Shah BPSC (Pre) 1999]
• The famous Hazara temple of Vijaynagara was built during the reign of – Krishnadeva Raya [MPPSC (Pre) 2014)
• In which king’s reign, the Persian traveller ‘Abdur Razzak’ came to India ? – Dev Rai II [BPSC (Pre) 2016]
• Sayana, the famous commentator of the Vedic texts, flourished during the reign of – The Vijayanagara Kings [UKPSC (Pre) 2002]
• The famous battle of Talikota was fought between which rulers? – Vijayanagara and combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda [UPPSC (Mains) 2014]
• Which famous war took place in AD 1565? – Talikota War [BPSC (Pre) 2020]
• What was the chief characteristic of the financial system of Vijayanagara empire ? Land revenue [BPSC (Pre) 1994]
• Which Raja Wodeyar founded the kingdom of Mysore, who was the ruler of Vijayanagara empire ? – Venkata II [IAS (Pre) 2006]
• Ruins of which city represent the old capital of Vijayanagara – Hampi [UPPSC (Mains) 2007, 2008]
• Where is the famous Vijay Vitthal temple having its 56 carved pillars emitting musical notes located ? – Hampi [IAS (Pre) 2007]
• Building Kalyana Mandapas was a notable feature in the temple construction in the kingdom of – Vijayanagara [IAS (Pre) 2019]
• Which ruler of Vijayanagara had sent his ambassador to the emperor of China? – Bukka I [CGPSC (Pre) 2008]
• According to the portuguese writer Nuniz, the women in Vijayanagara empire were expert in which areas ? – Literary, Accountancy, Astrology, Soothesayin LIAS (Pre) 2021]
• Which ruler is considered the founder of the Bahmani Kingdom? – Alauddin Hasan [BPSC (Pre) 2016]

UPSC NCERT Practice Questions

1. Which one of the following dynasties ruled under the suzerainty of the Kingdom of Vijayanagara?

(a) Sangamas, Saluvas, Tuluvas and Aravidus

(b) Sangamas, Hoysalas, Aravidus and Tuluvas

(c) Hoysalas, Saluvas, Poligars and Sangamas

(d) Yadavas of Devagiri, Hoysalas, Saluvas and Aravidus

2. Which of the following statements) about the Vijayanagara Empire is/are correct?

1. The kings claimed to rule on behalf of the God Virupaksha.

2. Rulers used the title ‘Hindu Suratrana’ to indicate their close links with Gods.

3. All royal orders were signed in Kannada, Sanskrit and Tamil.

4. Royal portrait sculpture was displayed in temples.

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) Only 4

(b) 1 and 2

(c) 1, 2 and 3

(d) 1, 2 and 4

3. Who among the following rulers of Vijayanagara Empire constructed a large dam across Tungabhadra River and a canal-cum-aqueduct several kilometres long from the river to the capital city? IAS (Pre) 2023

(a) Devaraya I

(b) Mallikarjuna

(c) Vira Vijaya

(d) Virupaksha

4. Building Kalyana Mandapas’ was a notable feature in the temple construction in the kingdom of IAS (Pre) 2019

(a) Chalukya

(b) Chandela

(c) Rashtrakuta

(d) Vijayanagara

5. The Ashtadiggajas’ were associated with which of the following rulers? RAS/RTS (Pre) 2010

(a) Shivaji

(b) Krishnadevaraya

(c) Rajendra I

(d) Yashovarman

6. Regarding the taxation system of Krishnadeva, the ruler of Vijayanagara, consider the following statements. IAS (Pre) 2016

1. The tax rate on land was fixed depending on the quality of the land.

2. Private owners of workshops paid an industries tax.

Which of the statements) given above is/are correct?

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

7. Consider the following statements and choose the correct answer by using the codes given below. RAS/RTS (Pre) 2021

Statement 1 Krishnadevaraya, ruler of Vijayanagara wrote the treatise Amuktamalyada.

Statement 2 Krishnadevaraya is also known by the name of Andhra Bhoja.

Statement 3 Allasani Peddana, the poet laureate well versed in Sanskrit and Tamil, adorned his court.

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(c) 1 and 2

(d) All of the above

8. Which one of the following works was composed by Krishnadevaraya on statecraft in Telugu?

(a) Amuktamalyada

(b) Jambavati Kalyanam

(c) Rayavachakamu

(d) Satyavadu Parinaya

9. Which of the following statements about Amaranayakas of Vijayanagara are correct?

1. The Amaranayakas were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the Raya.

2. In lieu of their service and also to maintain their contingents, they were paid in cash.

3. They maintained stipulated contingents and elephants.

4. They used to send tribute to the king annually and personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to express their loyalty.

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 3 and 4 (c) 2 and 4 (d) All of these

10. What was the practice adopted by the Vijayanagara kings to protect the inhabitants within a fortified area from starvation due to sieges by enemy armies? APPSC (Pre) 2017

(a) Large granaries were built within the fortified area to

(b) Secret pathways were maintained to transport groceries into fortified areas.

(c) Large agricultural tracts were incorporated within the fortified area.

d) The forts were built on hills to prevent siege by the enemy.

11. According to Portuguese writer Nuniz, the women in Vijayanagara Empire were expert in which of the following areas? IAS (Pre) 2021

1. Wrestling

2. Astrology

3. Accounting

4. Soothsaying

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) 1, 2 and 3

(b) 1, 3 and 4

(c) 2 and 4

(d) All of these

12. The interest of the Vijayanagara and Bahmani rulers clashed in three separate and distinct areas in Deccan. Which one among the following was not directly associated with this intense conflict?

(a) Tungabhadra Doab (b) Krishna-Godavari delta/ basin

(c) Kaveri interior delta (d) Marathawada country

13. Which one among the following was not a reform measure carried out by Mahmud Gawan of the Bahmani kingdom?

(a) The kingdom was divided into eight provinces or Tarafs.

(b) Nobles were paid salaries and were asked to maintain contingents of horses.

(c) A tract of land, Khalisa, was set apart for the expenses of the Tarafdar.

(d) Lands were measured and land taxes were fixed on that basis.

Know Right Answer

1 (a)

2 (d)

3 (a)

4 (d)

5 (b)

6 (c)

7 (d)

8 (a)

9 (b)

10 (c)

11 (d)

12 (c)

13 (c)

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. Q: What were the main reasons for the emergence of the Vijayanagara Empire?

A: The Vijayanagara Empire emerged in the 14th century primarily as a response to the invasions and political instability in the Deccan region. The founders, Harihara and Bukka, aimed to resist the Muslim invasions and establish a Hindu kingdom. Additionally, the fertile lands of the Tungabhadra River valley provided a strong economic base for the kingdom.

2. Q: What was the significance of the Battle of Talikota in the history of the Vijayanagara Empire?

A: The Battle of Talikota, fought in 1565, was a turning point for the Vijayanagara Empire. The alliance of Deccan Sultanates (mainly Bahmani) defeated Vijayanagara forces, leading to the fall of the empire. The battle had a profound impact on the political landscape of the Deccan.

3. Q: Explain the architectural achievements of the Vijayanagara rulers.

A: The Vijayanagara rulers were great patrons of art and architecture. They built impressive structures like the Virupaksha Temple, Hampi, and the Vittala Temple with its iconic stone chariot. The city of Hampi itself was a masterpiece of urban planning, showcasing the empire’s architectural prowess.

4. Q: What were the main features of the Bahmani Kingdom in the Deccan?

A: The Bahmani Kingdom, established in the 14th century, was characterized by its cosmopolitan culture and administrative innovations. The kingdom comprised diverse ethnic and religious groups, and its rulers implemented a unique system of governance with the division of the kingdom into provinces governed by nobles.

5. Q: How did the disintegration of the Bahmani Kingdom lead to the formation of the Deccan Sultanates?

A: The internal conflicts and power struggles within the Bahmani Kingdom eventually led to its disintegration into five independent sultanates – Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, Berar, and Bidar. This fragmentation marked the emergence of the Deccan Sultanates, each ruling over its respective territory and contributing to the cultural and political diversity of the Deccan region.

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