UPSC NCERT Notes – Geography – Regional Geography

Regional geography is a fundamental component of the vast tapestry of geographical studies, providing insights into the diverse characteristics, patterns, and processes that shape distinct regions across the globe. Understanding regional geography is paramount for aspirants preparing for the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) examination, as it not only elucidates the complexities of spatial organization but also offers a nuanced comprehension of socio-economic, cultural, and environmental dynamics at play within specific geographical realms. In this pursuit, NCERT notes serve as invaluable resources, offering concise yet comprehensive elucidations of key concepts, theories, and case studies pertinent to regional geography. Through the lens of these meticulously crafted notes, aspirants can navigate through the intricacies of regional differentiation, spatial interactions, and the myriad factors influencing regional development, thereby equipping themselves with the requisite knowledge to tackle the challenges posed by the UPSC examination with confidence and acumen.

“The large landmasses are known as the continents. There are seven major continents in the world which are separated by large water bodies. These continents are Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America, Australia and Antarctica.”

Asia

• As the largest continent on Earth, Asia spans an impressive 44,557,000 sq. km, constituting one-third of the global land area. As of 2021, it is home to over 59% of the world’s population.
• Positioned between 10°S and 80°N latitudes, Asia encompasses a diverse range of climates, extending from the hottest to the coolest regions. While its latitudinal range is from 10°S to 80°N, the majority of Asia’s landmass is situated north of the Equator. Longitudinally, it stretches from 25°E to 17°W, with its East-West extension covering half the globe’s surface, primarily in the Eastern hemisphere but with a portion in the Western hemisphere.
• Bordered by three oceans—Pacific to the East, Indian to the South, and Arctic to the North—Asia boasts a strategic geographical location.
• The Ural Mountains, Caspian Sea, Caucasus Mountains, and Black Sea act as natural boundaries between Asia and Europe, while the New Guinea islands delineate the separation between the Asian and Australian continents.
• Known as the continent of varieties, Asia exhibits extremes in temperature, with the highest recorded at Tirat Zvi, Israel (54°C) and the lowest at Verkhoyansk, Siberia (-69°C).
• Asia’s coastal length is 69,000 km (except the coastal length of islands) and land extension from North to South is 6,400 km and 9,650 km from East to West.
• Three out of the four most populous countries in the world (China, India and Indonesia) are located in Asia.
• Japan has the longest life expectancy (80.9 years for men and 86.6 years for women) in world.

Major locations of the Asian Continent are the

• Northernmost point- Chelyuskin, Russia (77°43’N)
• Southernmost point- Tanjung Piai, Malaysia (10°14’N)
• Easternmost point- Cape Dezhnev, Siberia (169°40’W)
• Westernmost point- Cape Bosporus, Turkey (26°4’E)

Physical Features

Asia can be categorized into five primary physical divisions, outlined below.

The Northern Lowlands

• Stretching from the Ural Mountains in the West to the Bering Strait in the North, Asia’s Northern lowlands take on a triangular shape, with their widest point in the West.
• The Siberian plain, in the northern part of the continent, is traversed by rivers such as Ob, Yenisei, and Lena, flowing from South to North and eventually draining into the Arctic Ocean.
• Winter’s grip on the polar region leads to the blocking of water in the upper courses, resulting in the inundation of a significant portion of the flat plain, creating swampy and marshy conditions.
• This region is home to Lake Baikal, the world’s deepest lake, holding 20% of the Earth’s freshwater lakes.

The Central Mountain Belt

• The Pamir Plateau in central Asia acts as a mountain knot, giving rise to various mountain chains that extend in different directions. Westward chains enclose the plateaus of Iran and Anatolia.
• The Himalayas, Karakoram, and Kunlun mountain chains run eastward, encompassing the Tibetan Plateau, the highest and largest plateau globally. The vast Gobi Desert lies to the northeast.

The Southern Plateaus

• South of the central mountain belt, ancient rock plateaus emerge, including the Arabian Plateau, Deccan Plateau, and the Shan and Yunnan Plateau.
• The Arabian Plateau, situated in the South-West part of Asia, is a dry sand desert surrounded by the Persian Gulf in the East, the Red Sea in the West, and the Arabian Sea in the South.
• The Deccan Plateau in India is one of the oldest plateaus, bordered by the Western Ghats in the West, Eastern Ghats in the East, and the Satpura, Maikal Range, and Mahadeo Hills in the North.

The Great River Valleys

• Significant valleys formed by rivers like Tigris-Euphrates, Indus, Ganga-Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, Sikiang, Changjiang, and Hwang Ho mark fertile regions densely populated by civilizations.
• The Tigris-Euphrates valley, located along the banks of these rivers, is the cradle of the Mesopotamian civilization (Iraq).
• The Ganga-Brahmaputra delta, before entering the Bay of Bengal, forms the world’s largest delta, with a highly indented coastline.

Island Groups of South-East and East Asia

• Prominent island groups include Indonesia, the Philippines, and Japan.
• These islands, mostly mountainous, are renowned for their active or recently active volcanoes.
• Positioned primarily in the Eastern and Northern hemispheres, Asia is crossed by the Equator, Tropic of Cancer, and Arctic Circle.
• Separated from Africa by the Red Sea and Suez Canal, it is also divided from North America by the Bering Strait.
• The Arabian Peninsula stands as the world’s largest peninsula, and the Mariana Trench, the world’s deepest trench, lies in the Pacific Ocean near the Philippines.
• The Pamir Plateau, known as the Roof of the World, is situated in Central Asia.
• Noteworthy peninsulas include the Arabian Peninsula, Indo-Chinese Peninsula, and Deccan Peninsula.
• Important island groups encompass Andaman and Nicobar, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Japan.
• Major straits include the Malacca Strait, Palk Strait, Sunda Strait, Bering Strait, Bonne-Fasio Strait, Bosphorus Strait, Hormuz Strait, Makassar Strait, Tsungaru Strait, and Formosa Strait.

Major Rivers of Asia

Name	Associated Countries	Features
Amu Darya	Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan	Origin: Pamir Mountains, Flows in semi-arid region, Estuary into the Aral Sea
Syr-Darya	Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan	Main river of Thailand. Basin famous for rice production. At its mouth, Bangkok, the capital of Thailand, is situated.
Chao Phraya River	Thailand	Origin: Taurus Mountain (Turkey), Basin famous for date production. Estuary into the Andaman Sea. Cities like Yangon are situated on its deltaic region.
Tigris and Euphrates	Turkey, Iran, Syria	Origin: Taurus Mountain (Turkey), Basin famous for date production. Estuary into the Andaman Sea. Cities like Yangon are situated on its deltaic region.
Yellow River (Huanghe)	China	Origin: Kunlun Mountains, Estuary: Po Hai Bay (Yellow Sea). Famous for erosion, flood, and silt deposition. Estuary into the East China Sea. Longest river in Asia. Cities of Shanghai and Han are situated on its banks. The Three Gorges Dam is located on this river.
Yangtze River (Changjiang)	China	Origin: Tibetan Plateau, Estuary: South China Sea. Known as Yarlung-Tsangpo in Tibet (China) and Padma in Bangladesh. Dibang and Lohit are major tributaries. Teesta river joins it in Bangladesh.
Irrawaddy River	Myanmar	Origin: Tibetan Plateau, Estuary: South China Sea. Known as Yarlung-Tsangpo in Tibet (China) and Padma in Bangladesh. Dibang and Lohit are major tributaries. Teesta river joins it in Bangladesh.
Mekong River	China, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam	Origin: Tibetan Plateau, Estuary: South China Sea. Known as Yarlung-Tsangpo in Tibet (China) and Padma in Bangladesh. Dibang and Lohit are major tributaries. Teesta river joins it in Bangladesh.
Jordan River	Israel, Jordan, Syria, Palestine	Estuary: Dead Sea
Lena River	Russia	Estuary: Arctic Sea (Laptev Sea)
Ob River	Russia	Estuary: Kara Sea (Arctic Sea)
Yenisei River	Russia	Estuary: Kara Sea (Arctic Sea)
Amur River	Russia, China	Estuary: Sea of Okhotsk (Tartar Strait)
Xi (Si-Kiang) River	China	Estuary: South China Sea
Brahmaputra River	China, India, Bangladesh	Origin: Chemayungdung Glacier, Estuary: Bay of Bengal

Major Straits of Asia

Name	Separates	Connects
Bering Strait	Asia and North America	East Siberian Sea with Bering Sea
La Perouse Strait	Sakhalin Island and Hokkaido Island	Sea of Okhotsk with Sea of Japan
Tata Strait	Eastern Russia and Sakhalin	Sea of Okhotsk with Sea of Japan
Korea Strait	South Korea and Kyushu (Japan)	Yellow Sea with Sea of Japan
Formosa Strait (Taiwan Strait)	Taiwan and China	East China Sea with South China Sea
Luzon Strait	Taiwan and Luzon (Philippines)	South China Sea with Pacific Ocean
Makassar Strait	Borneo (Kalimantan) and Celebes Island	Celebes Sea with Java Sea
Sunda Strait	Java and Sumatra	Java Sea with Indian Ocean
Malacca Strait	Malaya Peninsula and Sumatra	Java Sea with Bay of Bengal
Strait of Jahore	Singapore and Malaysia	South China Sea with Strait of Malacca
Strait of Hormuz	UAE and Iran	Persian Gulf with Gulf of Oman
Strait of Bosporus	Asia and Europe	Black Sea with Sea of Marmara
Strait of Dardanelles	Asia and Europe	Sea of Marmara with Mediterranean Sea

Major deserts and plains of Asia

Desert and Plain	Features
Rub’ al-Khali Desert	World’s largest sand-made desert located in Saudi Arabia. Uninhabited area.
Al-Nafud Desert	Hot desert located in Saudi Arabia.
Dast-e-Kabir Desert	Located in Iran, also known as the ‘Great Salt Desert’.
Dast-e-Lut Desert	Located in Eastern Iran.
Gobi Desert	One of the largest deserts in Asia, extending into Mongolia and China. Cold desert.
Taklamakan Desert	Located in the North-West region of China, Sinkiang province.
Manchuria Plain	Formed by the Amur river and its tributaries, located in China.
Turan Plain	Formed by Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers, extending into Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan.

Climate

• The extensive size of Asia results in a wide range of climates, influenced by significant differences in elevation.
• Winter in the central part of Asia brings temperatures below freezing, causing the air to contract and form a high-pressure area.
• Dry winds from this region pick up moisture only when passing over the sea, leading to rainfall in Japan, parts of South-East Asia, and the Southern-East coast of India and Sri Lanka during this season.
• In summer, the heating of air creates a low-pressure area, drawing in air from cooler surrounding oceans and causing rainfall across most of Asia.
• Annual rainfall varies significantly across Asia, with places like Mawsynram in the East Khasi hill district of Meghalaya (India) being the wettest on Earth, while desert regions (from the Red Sea to Mongolia) may not see rain for many years.

Soil

• South and South-East Asia predominantly feature soils of red or black color, rich in aluminum and iron oxides, low in silica, nearly structureless, and generally of low fertility.
• Arabian and Central Asian deserts have soils high in unleached minerals but may lack nitrogen and humus.
• Regions with high water tables accumulate evaporation salts near the surface, resulting in alkaline soils. Red desert soils cover much of the Arabian Peninsula and North-West India, while higher desert soils are found in the rest of South-West Asian countries.
• Large parts of Northern Asia are covered by podzolic soils with varying but generally low fertility, mainly in regions with well-distributed rainfall at mid to high latitudes.
• The predominant soils in Asia are relatively young alluvial soils found in river valleys. These alluvial soils cover areas such as the Tigris-Euphrates river valleys, the plains of the Indus-Ganga rivers, the lower Irrawaddy basin, the deltas of the Mekong, and the lower basins of the Chang Jiang and Huang He rivers. They are also present in the river plains of smaller rivers in India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan.
• Certain islands in Indonesia and Southern Philippines contain active volcanoes, periodically contributing a layer of rich basic soils from recently deposited volcanic materials.

Agriculture

• Agriculture in some mountainous and forested areas involves shifting cultivation, where a patch of forest is cleared by burning trees, commonly practiced by people in the mountains of South and South-East Asia. Intensive agriculture, requiring manual labor on small pieces of land, is prevalent in plains and river valleys. 
• Extensive agriculture, on the other hand, is employed in some parts of Central Asia and West Siberia, where machines are used due to the vast size of the farms.

Crops

• Major crops in Asia include rice, with more than 90% of the world’s rice production occurring in China, India, Japan, Bangladesh, and countries of South-East Asia.
• Wheat is grown in sub-tropical and temperate lands of Russia, Ukraine, India, Pakistan, and South-West Asia. Millets like bajra, jowar, and ragi are cultivated in semi-arid regions, along with pulses and oilseeds. 
• Cash crops such as cotton, jute, sugarcane, and tea are significant contributors to the economy. Cotton is grown in China, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, India, Pakistan, and South-West Asia, while jute is produced in the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta, sugarcane in India, Indonesia, and Pakistan, and tea in India, Sri Lanka, China, Japan, and Indonesia.

Vegetation 

• The natural vegetation of Asia varies based on climate. The Tundra vegetation along the Northern coast is covered with snow and ice for most of the year, characterized by short and cool summers. 
• The Taiga, south of the Tundra, is a broad belt of coniferous forest known for severe winters and warm summers, home to softwood trees like fir, spruce, and pine.
• The Steppe, a temperate grassland, experiences cold winters and fairly hot summers, supporting grasses but not trees. 
• Deserts, such as the hot deserts of Thar and Arabia in the Southwest and the cold deserts of Gobi and Tibet in the North, have unfavorable conditions for plant growth, hosting shrubs, thorny bushes, and poor grasses.
• Monsoon forests are found in South, South-East, and East Asia, with useful trees like teak, sal, and sandalwood. Elephants are typical animals of monsoon forests. In North-Eastern Asia, monsoon forests transition into temperate woodlands. Equatorial forests are located in the extremely Southern part of Asia.

Forest

• Asia boasts three primary types of forests: coniferous forests, monsoon forests, and equatorial forests.
  • Coniferous forests are present in Russia, Japan, and the Himalayan region, providing softwood used for timber, paper pulp, and rayon.
  • Monsoon forests are found in India, Myanmar, and parts of South-East Asia, offering valuable trees such as teak, sal, and bamboo.
  • Equatorial forests are located in Malaysia and Indonesia, with a significant portion converted into rubber estates. Thailand stands as the largest producer and exporter of rubber globally.

Minerals

• Key mineral resources in Asia include iron, manganese, tungsten, bauxite, mica, tin, coal, and oil.
• Iron ore is abundant in India, China, Russia, and Azerbaijan, while mica deposits are mainly found in India. Malaysia is rich in tin deposits.
• Large coal deposits are found in China, Russia, and India.
• Countries in South-West Asia possess substantial oil deposits, with leading producers being Kuwait, Bahrain, Iraq, Iran, and Russia. Myanmar, Indonesia, and India also contribute significantly to oil production.

Population

• Asia is the most populous continent globally, representing 59.76% of the total world population as of 2021.
• The average population density in Asia is 150 persons per square kilometer.
• Sparse populations are found in Northern and Eastern Siberia, the deserts and highlands of Asia, the Arabian desert, the plateau of Iran, and the Thar desert in India.
• The densely populated areas include the plains of India, Bangladesh, Java island in Indonesia, and the plains of China and Japan.
• Eastern and South-Eastern Asia, primarily comprising Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Filipino, Malaysian, Indonesian, Thai, Myanmarese, and other populations, make up more than one-third of the continent’s population.
• Brown people, including those from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and other South Asian countries, inhabit the region.
• South-West Asia is home to Arabs, Turks, Persians, Afghans, and various other groups, while Central Asia hosts Mongols, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, and Kirghiz.
• Asians consume up to 90% of the total world production of rice.

Asia’s Top 10 Cities with Urban Population

• Tokyo (Japan)
• Jakarta (Indonesia)
• Delhi (India)
• Mumbai (India)
• Seoul (South Korea)
• Shanghai (China)
• Manila (Philippines)
• Karachi (Pakistan)
• Beijing (China)
• Guangzhou (China)

• Singapore, South Korea, and Japan have the highest average Intelligence Quotient (IQ) on the planet.
  • Largest city in terms of population: Tokyo
  • Land area: 44,579,000 sq. km
  • Largest lake: Baikal lake
  • Major religions: Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism

Major Countries of the Asian Continent

Description	Country
– Landlocked country	Bhutan
– Known as the land of thunderbolt
– Gangkhar Puensum (7561m) is the highest peak
– Measures economic development through Gross National Happiness
Bangladesh
– Called the land of rivers	Bangladesh
– Surrounded by India from three sides
– Border between Bangladesh and Tripura is called Zero Line
– Produces 50% of jute and jute-related material in the world
China (The Home of One-fifth of Mankind)
– Largest population in the world and fourth in area-wise	China
– Taklamakan desert is an isolated and cold desert in Tarim basin
– Huang Ho river is also known as Yellow river
– Shanghai is known as Manchester of China
– Leading producer of rice, wheat, tobacco, tea, groundnut, and vegetables
Indonesia
– Borneo is the largest island, locally called Kalimantan	Indonesia
– Krakatoa, a world-famous volcano island, is situated between Java and Sumatra
– Second largest producer of tin after China
Japan (The Land of the Rising Sun)
– Called Nippon in Japanese, meaning Land of the Rising Sun	Japan
– Honshu is the largest island where Tokyo and active volcano Fujiyama are situated
– Kyoto is known as the city of small industries, and Osaka is known as Manchester of Japan
Malaysia
– World’s leading producer and exporter of tin	Malaysia
– Tin producing areas are Selangor, Penang, and Jelebu valley
– Mount Kinabaku (4101m) is the highest peak
– Pahang and Kinabatangan are the main rivers
– Sarawak province has the maximum number of Chinese people
Myanmar
– Called the land of golden pagoda	Myanmar
– Doab of Saloni and Ervadi river is called the rice bowl of the far East
– Ervadi river is the lifeline of Myanmar
– Mandalay is a historic city located on the banks of Ervadi river
– Pyu city is a world heritage site

Country	Description
Nepal (Himalayan Kingdom)	– Established as a buffer state in the North of India
	– Landlocked country
	– World’s highest mountain, Mount Everest (8848m), is situated in Nepal
	– Devishali, Trishali, and Koshi projects have been established with the support of the Government of India
	– Virat Nagar is the only industrial town
	– Shuklaphanta National Park is situated in Nepal
Pakistan (Land of Canals)	– Known as the country of canals
	– Swat valley is considered the heaven of Pakistan
	– Jacobabad, Pakistan, is one of the hottest places on Earth (58°C)
	– Salt range in Pakistan is famous for mayo salt, gypsum, and limestone
	– Faisalabad is considered the Manchester of Pakistan
Sri Lanka (The Pearl of the East)	– Known as the Pearl of the East and Heaven’s Door
	– Pidurutalagala (2524m) is the highest peak of Sri Lanka
	– Mahaweli Ganga is the longest river flowing to the North-East and falling into the Bay of Bengal
	– Kandy city is famous for Buddhist temples
	– Highest number of newspapers are circulated in Asia

Important countries of asia and their capitals

Country	Capital	Country	Capital
Afghanistan	Kabul	Malaysia	Kuala Lumpur
Armenia	Yerevan	Maldives	Male
Azerbaijan	Baku	Mongolia	Ulaanbaatar
Bahrain	Manama	Myanmar	Naypyidaw
Bangladesh	Dhaka	Nepal	Kathmandu
Bhutan	Thimphu	North Korea	Pyongyang
Brunei	Bandar Seri Begawan	Oman	Muscat
Cambodia	Phnom Penh	China	Beijing
Cyprus	Nicosia	East Timor	Dili
Georgia	Tbilisi	India	New Delhi
Indonesia	Jakarta	Iran	Tehran
Iraq	Baghdad	Israel	Jerusalem
Japan	Tokyo	Jordan	Amman
Kazakhstan	Nur-Sultan	Kuwait	Kuwait City
Kyrgyzstan	Bishkek	Laos	Vientiane
Lebanon	Beirut	Maldives	Male
Malaysia	Kuala Lumpur	Mongolia	Ulaanbaatar
Myanmar	Naypyidaw	Nepal	Kathmandu
North Korea	Pyongyang	Brunei	Bandar Seri Begawan
Oman	Muscat	Cambodia	Phnom Penh
China	Beijing	Cyprus	Nicosia
East Timor	Dili	Georgia	Tbilisi
India	New Delhi	Indonesia	Jakarta
Iran	Tehran	Iraq	Baghdad
Israel	Jerusalem	Japan	Tokyo
Jordan	Amman	Kazakhstan	Nur-Sultan
Kuwait	Kuwait City	Kyrgyzstan	Bishkek
Laos	Vientiane	Lebanon	Beirut
Malaysia	Kuala Lumpur	Maldives	Male
Mongolia	Ulaanbaatar	Myanmar	Naypyidaw
Nepal	Kathmandu	North Korea	Pyongyang
Brunei	Bandar Seri Begawan	Oman	Muscat
Cambodia	Phnom Penh	China	Beijing
Cyprus	Nicosia	East Timor	Dili
Georgia	Tbilisi	India	New Delhi
Indonesia	Jakarta	Iran	Tehran
Iraq	Baghdad	Israel	Jerusalem
Japan	Tokyo	Jordan	Amman
Kazakhstan	Nur-Sultan	Kuwait	Kuwait City
Kyrgyzstan	Bishkek	Laos	Vientiane
Lebanon	Beirut	Maldives	Male
Malaysia	Kuala Lumpur	Mongolia	Ulaanbaatar
Myanmar	Naypyidaw	Nepal	Kathmandu
North Korea	Pyongyang	Oman	Muscat
Pakistan	Islamabad	Philippines	Manila
Qatar	Doha	Russia	Moscow
Saudi Arabia	Riyadh	Singapore	Singapore
South Korea	Seoul	Sri Lanka	Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

Country	Capital	Country	Capital
Iraq	Baghdad	Syria	Damascus
Israel	Jerusalem	Tajikistan	Dushanbe
Japan	Tokyo	Thailand	Bangkok
Jordan	Amman	Turkey	Ankara
Kazakhstan	Nur-Sultan	Turkmenistan	Ashgabat
Kuwait	Kuwait City	United Arab Emirates	Abu Dhabi
Kyrgyzstan	Bishkek	Uzbekistan	Tashkent
Laos	Vientiane	Vietnam	Hanoi
Lebanon	Beirut	Yemen	Sana’a

Africa

• Africa is the second largest continent in the world, both in size and population. It occupies about 20% of the land area of Earth.
• Africa is the hottest continent on the Earth.
• Africa has the shortest coastline despite being the second largest continent in the world.
• Africa is the most centrally located continent in the world. Both the prime meridian (0° longitude) and the Equator (0° degrees latitude) cut across it.
• The African continents terrain was inhabitable and remained unknown for thousands of years, earning it the name of Dark Continent.
• The African continent is separated from Europe by the Mediterranean sea and from Asia by the Red sea. It touches Eurasia at three different points namely the Strait of Gibraltar in North-West, Suez canal in North-East and the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb in East.
• The Equator passes through the middle of the African continent and it receives direct sunlight throughout the year.
• Nigeria has the highest population (154.7 million people) in Africa. This represents 18% of Africa’s total population. 

• Africa is home to both the tallest and largest land animals, the giraffe, and African elephant, respectively.
• Algeria holds the title of being the largest country in Africa by land area. Ethiopia, situated in Africa, boasts the world’s hottest place.

Physical Features

• The highest peak in Africa is Kilimanjaro, standing at 5,895 meters and remaining snow-covered throughout the year.
• The Great Rift Valley in Africa stretches from the South of Lake Malawi Northward to the Red Sea, continuing through the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba to the Dead Sea.
• Approximately one-third of Africa comprises desert land, with the Sahara, located in the Northern part, ranking as the world’s largest desert. The Kalahari desert in Southern Africa is another significant desert.

Drainage System

• Victoria is the largest lake in Africa and the source of the River Nile, the world’s longest river. After traversing the Sahara desert, it reaches the Mediterranean Sea.
• Zaire river in central Africa is later known as Congo, carrying the greatest amount of water into the Atlantic Ocean.
• Niger in the Western part, and the Zambezi and Orange in the Northern part, are other important rivers in Africa.
• Apart from the Nile and Zaire rivers, few African rivers are suitable for shipping due to their descent from higher plateaus to coastal lowlands, forming waterfalls.
• Victoria Falls on the Zambezi surpasses the famous Niagara Falls in North America in both height and width.

Climate and Vegetation

• Africa spans between 37° 14′ N to 34° 50′ S latitudes, with a major part lying within the tropical zone.
• Africa is the most tropical of all continents, recording the highest temperature globally at Al-Aziziyah (Libya) as 58°C.
• The equatorial belt along both sides of the Equator experiences equatorial climate with almost daily rainfall and a hot-wet summer season, leading to the formation of thick forests known as tropical rainforests, hosting diverse wildlife.
• Within rainforests, there are regions with warm summers and mild winters, characterized by less rainfall, known as Sudan climate, predominant in a large part of the continent with grassy vegetation.
• Extensive deserts in Northern and Southern Africa have a hot and extremely dry desert climate with either no vegetation or only scrub and bushes.
• The Northern and Southern coasts experience a Mediterranean climate with mild and rainy winters and warm and dry summers. The highlands of Southern and Eastern Africa have a cooler climate.

Soil

• Only 10% of African soil is suitable for crops, including volcanic soils in East Africa, alluvial soil in the Nile valley, and fertile soils in the Savanna lands.

Forests

• Large parts of central Africa are covered with dense forests yielding hardwood for timber, including valuable trees like Mahogany, Ebony, and Kapok. Rubber trees from South America grow wild, and Africa exports rubber on a large scale.
• Coconut palm trees are found on tropical islands like Zanzibar and Pemba and along the equatorial coast, yielding Copra for coconut oil.
• West Africa is home to oil palms, the source of palm oil.
• Date palms grow in oases in drier regions, providing an essential food item. Egypt exports a significant amount of dates. Cocoa and kola trees are sources of beverages.
• Cocoa, used in chocolate production, thrives in the equatorial lowlands of West African countries like Ghana and Nigeria.
• Kola trees produce nuts used in cola drinks and chewing gum. The tropical region in Africa cultivates banana, pineapple, jackfruit, mango, and citrus fruit trees, while the Mediterranean region grows olives, apples, peaches, and grapes. East Africa specializes in cashew nuts, and Zanzibar and Pemba islands are major global producers and exporters of cloves.

Wildlife

• Wildlife in Africa’s forests and swamps includes elephants, wild buffaloes, snakes, pythons, monkeys, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, deer, stags, zebras, giraffes, camels in deserts, and ostriches in the Kalahari desert. 
• In the higher Savanna regions, nomadic tribes graze cattle, and major animals include cheetahs, African elephants, lions, zebras, Egyptian mongooses, giraffes, and addax.

Minerals and Energy Resources

• Africa contributes 95% of the world’s diamond production and over half of the world’s gold production. 
• South Africa is a major producer of gold and platinum, with Johannesburg being called Guiden city. Africa possesses significant reserves of cobalt, manganese, chromium, copper, tin, bauxite, and uranium, but coal and iron ore are scarce. South Africa leads in chromium production.
• Congo and South Africa are major producers of copper, bauxite, and uranium, while petroleum is found in Nigeria, Libya, and Angola.

Agriculture

• Only 10% of Africa’s land is cultivable, where both food and cash crops are grown. Root crops like yams and cassava are predominant, and West Africa specializes in palm oil and groundnuts, with Nigeria exporting a large amount of palm oil. Cocoa and coffee from Africa are major contributors to world trade.
• Cotton has been grown in the Nile valley for thousands of years. Africa is a significant producer and exporter of sisal, with Tanzania leading in sisal production. Zanzibar and Pemba are famous for cloves and coconuts.

Industries

• South Africa’s major industrial complexes include Pretoria, Johannesburg, and virgin areas with iron, steel, machinery, garment, and chemical industries. 
• Egypt, South Africa’s Johannesburg, Durban, and East London host the cotton clothes industry, while Johannesburg, Cairo (Egypt), and Nigeria are centers for the cement industry.

Transportation

• Africa faces transportation challenges due to extensive deserts and thick forests hindering road and railway construction.
• Major ports include Durban, Port of Richard Bay, and Port Dar Es Salaam (Tanzania). Major airports connecting Africa to the world are located in Cairo, Johannesburg, and Cape Town.

Population

• About 70% of Africa’s population is black, with Nigeria having the largest population. As of the World Population Prospect 2019, Africa’s population is 1308 million, and the population density is 44 per sq. km. Swahili is widely understood, and people also speak English, Arabic, Italian, and French.

Different religions such as Islam, Christianity and Animism are followed by people of Africa. Animism is the religion followed by many tribes.

• The largest waterfall in Africa is the Victoria falls and it is located on the Zimbabwe and Zambia border.
• It has a height of 355 feet and the width of the water fall runs into almost a mile.
• More than 50% of the world’s French-speaking population lives here on the continent.
• Angola has more Portuguese speakers than Portugal. Africa has a pink lake in Senegal.
• More than 50% of the world’s gold and 95% of the world’s diamonds come from the mineral-rich continent of Africa.

• The world also gets 66% of its chocolate from the African continent.

Major countries in Africa

Country	Description
Zaire (Land of Forests)	– Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire) named after River Zaire, crossing Equator twice. – Known as the “big zoo” for its vast variety of wild animals. – Matadi port on the bank of the Zaire River is a major port.
Nigeria (Land of Oil and Cocoa)	– Low lands and plateaus characterize Nigeria. – Harmattan, hot, and dust-laden winds blow from the North-East. – Ibadan is the main industrial city, while Lagos and Port Harcourt are major industrial ports.
Egypt	– Arab Republic of Egypt is at the junction of Africa and Asia. – Khamsin, hot, dry, and sand-laden winds, blow here. – Farmers are called Faillah. – Suez Canal links the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea (173 km long).
South Africa (Country of Diamond and Gold)	– Administrative capital: Pretoria, Legislative capital: Cape Town. – Drakensberg is the main mountain range, with Wall and Orange rivers originating from here. – Limpopo is a major river cutting the Tropic of Capricorn twice. – The plateau region, known as Veld, is covered with grasses and called the “triangle of maize.” – Kimberley is the center of diamond mining, and areas near Johannesburg are centers of gold mining.

Important Countries of Africa and their capitals

S.No.	Country	Capital
1	Algeria	Algiers
2	Angola	Luanda
3	Benin	Porto-Novo
4	Botswana	Gaborone
5	Burkina Faso	Ouagadougou
6	Burundi	Bujumbura
7	Cameroon	Yaounde
8	Cape Verde	Prala
9	Central African Republic	Bangul
10	Chad	N’Djamena
11	Comoros	Moroni
12	Congo	Brazzaville
13	Djibouti	Djibouti City
14	Egypt	Cairo
15	Equatorial Guinea	Malabo
16	Eritrea	Asmara
17	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa
18	Gabon	Libreville
19	Gambia	Banjul
20	Ghana	Accra
21	Guinea	Conakry
22	Guinea-Bissau	Bissau
23	Ivory Coast (Cote d’Ivoire)	Abidjan (Economic) and Yamoussoukro (Political)
24	Kenya	Nairobi
25	Lesotho	Maseru
26	Liberia	Monrovia
27	Libya	Tripoli
28	Madagascar	Antananarivo
29	Malawi	Lilongwe
30	Mali	Bamako
31	Mauritania	Nouakchott
32	Mauritius	Port Louis
33	Mayotte	Dzaoudzi and Mamoudzou
34	Morocco	Rabat
35	Mozambique	Maputo
36	Namibia	Windhoek
37	Niger	Niamey
38	Nigeria	Abuja
39	Reunion	Saint-Denis
40	Rwanda	Kigali
41	Sao Tome and Principe	Sao Tome
42	Senegal	Dakar
43	Seychelles	Victoria

S.No.	Country	Capital
44	Sierre Leone	Freetown
45	Somalia	Mogadishu
46	South Africa	Cape Town (Legislative)<br>Pretoria (Administrative)<br>Bolemfontein (Judicial)
47	St. Helena	Jamestown
48	Swaziland	Mbabane and Lobamba
49	Tanzania	Dar es Salaam
50	Togo	Lome
51	Tunisia	Tunis
52	Uganda	Kampala
53	Zambia	Lusaka
54	Zimbabwe	Harare

Australia

• Australia, covering an entire continent, holds the distinction of being the only country with such a vast landmass. Captain James Cook, an English seaman, discovered Australia in 1770.
• As the smallest continent located entirely in the Southern hemisphere, Australia, along with New Zealand and nearby islands, forms Australasia. The country is divided into six self-governing states and two centrally administered territories.
• The Tropic of Capricorn nearly bisects the continent, earning Australia the moniker “Island continent” due to its surrounded-by-water geography. It is also referred to as Sahul, Australinea, or Meganesia to distinguish the continent from the country itself.
• Positioned entirely south of the Equator, Australia is commonly known as the “country down under.” It leads global wool production, with a sheep population 14 times that of its human inhabitants.
• Home to over 500 varieties of Eucalyptus trees, Australia boasts the world’s largest coral reef, the Great Barrier Reef, stretching approximately 2000 kilometers.
• Noteworthy structures include the Sydney Harbour Bridge, the world’s largest steel arch bridge, and the Sydney Tower Center, the tallest building in the Southern hemisphere.

Physical Features

• Australia’s landscape can be categorized into three main divisions: the Western plateau, Central lowlands, and Eastern highlands.
• The Western plateau, covering nearly two-thirds of the continent, is predominantly desert or semi-desert and rich in minerals like gold and iron ore.
• The central lowlands extend from the Gulf of Carpentaria in the North to the Southern shores, with major rivers like the Murray and the Darling flowing through.
• The Eastern highlands form the Great Dividing Range, a long belt of elevated plateaus. Mount Kosciuszko, at 2234 meters, stands as the highest peak in Australia, and the region is the source of many of the country’s rivers, including the iconic Great Barrier Reef along the North-East coast.

Climate

• The majority of Australia experiences a dry climate. The Eastern, North-Eastern, and South-Western regions receive heavy rainfall due to winds from the sea.
• The Eastern highlands act as a barrier to rain-bearing winds, resulting in large parts of central and Western Australia experiencing arid, desert-like conditions.
• The Southern coast enjoys a Mediterranean climate, while the Northern part experiences monsoon winds, making it cool and dry in winter and wet in summer.

Forest and Grasslands

• Eucalyptus, commonly known as gum trees, is abundant in Australia, with varieties like Jarrah and Karri valued for their timber.
• Wattle is another common tree. It is tall and bears golden flowers in summer.
• The tropical grasslands of Australia are found in North. They are called Savannas.
• The temperate grasslands found in the Murray- Darling basin are called Downs. These grasslands are known for pastoral farming.
• The vegetation of semi-arid regions consists of salt bush and mulger plants. Cactus and thorny grass plants are found in more arid parts.

Wildlife

• Many of the animals of Australia are marsupials (pouch like fold of skin near stomach to carry baby).
• Kangaroo is the symbol of Australia which lives on grass and leaves.
• Koala is another marsupial of Australia which resembles teddy bear.
• Dingo, wild dog and Platypus are also found in Australia. Emu, Kookaburra and Lyrebird are some of the birds of Australia.

Crops

• Wheat is the most important food crop of Australia. New South Wales and Western Australia are main wheat-growing states.
• Barley, oats and maize are other food crops grown in Australia. Rice is cultivated in irrigated areas.

• Queensland cultivates significant crops such as sugarcane, tobacco, and cotton. In the tropical North, pineapple, banana, and papaya thrive, while the temperate South focuses on growing apples, oranges, and grapes.

Sheep Rearing

• Australia boasts the world’s highest sheep population, primarily raised for wool. The prime sheep lands lie between the Murray and Darling rivers. The Merino breed dominates, producing top-quality wool, with large sheep stations managed by laborers known as Jackaroos.

Cattle Rearing

• Queensland and the Northern Territory excel in producing premium beef cattle. The East and Southeastern regions are prominent in dairy farming, benefiting from sufficient rainfall for grass growth.

Minerals

• Australia is a significant producer of gold and possesses extensive reserves of coal, iron ore, bauxite, manganese, and tin. It leads globally in bauxite production and also holds reserves of oil and natural gas.

Industry

• Victoria and New South Wales house the majority of manufacturing industries in Australia. The country manufactures iron, steel, agricultural machinery, motor vehicles, electrical goods, chemicals, paper, ships, machine tools, refined oil, cotton, wooden textiles, sugar, condensed and powdered milk, butter, cheese, and tinned fruits and meat.

Transport

• The Trans-Australian Railway, spanning 4000 km from Sydney to Perth, is the only transcontinental railway. Commonwealth highways, akin to national highways in India, form the major road network. Australia has an efficient air ambulance system, and Sydney serves as the largest city and a vital seaport.

Population

• Australia’s population is around 23,401,892, with a density of 2 persons per sq. km. Concentrated mainly in the Eastern coastal lowlands and Southeastern regions, 85% of Australians reside in eight capital cities. The native tribes, Aborigines, originally spoke around 200 languages and dialects.

North America

• The third-largest continent globally, North America spans from Alaska in the North to West Labrador in the Northeast, and Panama in the South. It features extensive forests, fertile farmlands, abundant minerals, significant water power resources, and extensive coastal fishing grounds.
• North America encompasses five time zones and boasts every climate type.
• Named after the explorer Amerigo Vespucci, it is also known as the New World.
• The continent houses Lake Superior, the largest freshwater lake globally, and the Mississippi River, the world’s third-longest.
• Compared to other continents, North America has the highest average per-person income and the highest average food intake per individual.

Physical Features

• North America has four major physical divisions which are as follows.

The Canadian Shield

• It covers nearly half of Canada in North. Its average height is 300 to 400 metres.
• A large part of it is covered with swamps and lakes like Great Bear, Winnipeg and the Great Lakes (Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie and Lake Ontario).
• The Southern parts of the shield are low lands of Great Lakes and St Lawrence river.
• St Lawrence river is the busiest inland waterway in North America.
• St Lawrence and the Great Lakes provides the largest inland waterways in the world as they l USA and Canada.
• The shield holds a wealth of valuable mineral resources, including gold, silver, nickel, iron, copper, platinum, radium, cobalt, and uranium.

The Appalachian Mountains or Eastern Highlands

• The mountain’s height varies from 1000 m in South-Western Pennsylvania to 1800 m in Mount Washington.
• The Hudson River flows through the Appalachian Mountains, connecting to the Great Lakes via the Erie Canal.
• Abundant mineral resources such as coal, copper, and lead are found within this mountain range.

Central Lowlands

• Stretching approximately 2000 km between the Western Cordilleras and Eastern Highlands, the Central Lowlands extend over 6000 km from the Mackenzie River delta to the coastal plain in Texas.
• The Central and Southern parts constitute the river basin of the Missouri-Mississippi rivers, featuring fertile soil and rich agricultural resources.

Western Cordilleras

• The Western Cordilleras, a mountainous region running from North to South along the continent, includes the highest peak, Mt McKinley (6187m) in Alaska.
• Most of North America’s rivers originate in the Western Cordilleras, encompassing mountain ranges such as the Rocky Mountains, Coastal Range, and Sierra Nevada.
• The Great Basin, the continent’s largest intermontane plateau, is located here, followed by the Colorado Plateau to the south. The Grand Canyon of Colorado, renowned for its beauty, is the largest of its kind globally.
• The Western Cordilleras are rich in coal, lead, zinc, gold, and copper, and feature active volcanoes in Alaska and Mexico. Yellowstone Park houses the famous Old Faithful geyser.
• In summary, the Western Cordilleras serve as a diverse region with significant geological, geographical, and natural resources.

Important Rivers of North America

River	Countries	Length	Tributary of	Significance
Alabama River	US Alabama	318 ml (512 km)	Gulf of Mexico	The Edmund Pettus Bridge crosses the Alabama river near Selma. The bridge was the site of the famous marches for voting rights in 1965
Colorado River	US Colorado, Utah, Arizona, Nevada. California Mexico. Baja California, Sonora	1,243 ml (2,000 km)	Gulf of California, Pacific Ocean	Known for its dramatic canyons, whitewater rapids, and eleven US National Parks; vital source of water in South-West US
Columbia River	Canada British Columbia US Washington, Oregon	1,078 mi (1,735 km)	Pacific Ocean	Largest river in Pacific North-West, largest river emptying into the Pacific Ocean in North America
Snake River	US Wyoming, Idaho, Oregon, Washington	–	Columbia River	Largest tributary of Columbia River, shores populated by Native Americans, discovered by Lewis and Clark
Rio Grande	Mexico Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas, US: Colorado, New Mexico, Texas	315 ml (507 km)	Gulf of Mexico	Longest US/Mexico border river
Hudson River	US: New York, New Jersey	862 ml (1,387 km)	Atlantic Ocean	Explored by Henry Hudson in 1609
Mackenzie River	Canada: North-West Territories, Yukon	1,080 ml (1,740 km)	Beaufort Sea, Arctic Ocean	Longest river in Canada
Liard River	Canada: British Columbia, North-West Territories	693 ml (1,115 km)	Mackenzie River	Marks the North end of the Rocky mountains
Fraser River	Canada British Columbia	854 ml (1,374 km)	Strait of Georgia, Pacific Ocean	Longest river in British Columbia, visited by Spanish Explorers in 1792

River	Countries	Length	Tributary of	Significance
Mississippi River	US Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa	2,320 ml (3,730 km)	Gulf of Mexico	Second longest river in Northern Americas, important transportation route for Native Americans, associated with Yellowstone Park
Missouri River	US: Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri	2,341 ml (3,767 km)	Mississippi River	Longest river in Northern Americas
Yellowstone River	US: Wyoming, Montana, North Dakota	692 ml (1,114 km)	Missouri River	–

Important Lakes of North America

Lakes	Countries	Facts
Lake Superior	USA, Canada	– Largest freshwater lake in the world.<br>- Located on the highland.<br>- Iron ore is greatly produced in the Mesabi Range (US) of the Superior Highlands.
Lake Michigan	USA	– Soo Canal connects Superior Lake to Huron Lake.<br>- Salt Saint Mary located near Soo Canal is an important port of Canada.<br>- Gary-Chicago industrial region development.
Lake Huron	Canada and USA	– America’s Gary Chicago and Milwaukee cities are located on its banks.<br>- Development of Iron Steel Industry in the region.<br>- Chicago center of meat processing.
Lake Erie	Canada and USA	– Welland Canal connects Erie to Lake Ontario.<br>- Niagara Falls, tallest waterfall in North America.<br>- Buffalo city on Lake Erie shores.
Lake Ontario	Canada and USA	– Toronto, Hamilton, and Kingston cities located on its banks.<br>- Toronto, capital of Canadian province Ontario.<br>- Kingston center for Rail Engines and Locomotive.
Great Salt Lake	USA	– Brackish water lake in America, remnant of the freshwater lake Bonneville.<br>- Salt Lake City, capital of Utah, located on its coast.<br>- Largest by area is Lake Superior.
Great Lakes	Canada and USA	– Lake Superior is the largest by area, while Lake Ontario is the smallest.<br>- Of these, Michigan is the only lake that extends only in the USA. Other four lakes are in both Canada and the USA.

Climate:

• North America experiences a diverse climate range, extending from the tropical zone in the South to the frigid zone in the North.
• The Western highlands and Appalachian mountains bring cold winds from the North and warm winds from the South. Summers are generally hot, excluding the Arctic zone and Western Cordilleras.
• The Western coast in the North faces Westerlies, while the South-Eastern coast is influenced by trade winds, both bringing heavy rainfall. However, parts of South-West United States and North-West Mexico remain extremely dry.
• Winters are cold across much of North America, with temperatures significantly below freezing in the Northern and central parts, decreasing from South to North.

Vegetation and Animals:

• The extreme North of the continent, known as the Tundra, experiences a very cold and severe climate, with snow covering the ground for eight to nine months. Mosses, lichens, and grasses are the only vegetation during this period. Polar bears, caribou, musk-ox, and reindeer are the key animals in this region.
• South of the Tundra is the Taiga, a wide belt of coniferous forests stretching from Atlantic to Pacific. Balsam, fir, white and red pines dominate these forests, also found in the Western Cordilleras.
• South-East Canada and North-East United States have coniferous and deciduous forests with trees like beech, birch, maple, and oak.
• Tropical forests thrive in central America, Eastern Mexico, and the West Indies, featuring trees like palm, mahogany, and logwood.
• Grasslands, known as Prairies, are found in the interior plains of North America, known for tall and nutritious grasses.
• The extreme South-West part of the United States and North-Western Mexico features scanty rainfall, with natural vegetation consisting of various cactus plants.
• A Mediterranean climate is present on the West coast of California, with olive, pine, orange, and cork oak trees.

Crops:

• Important cereals grown in North America include maize, wheat, and barley. Cotton, tobacco, soybean, and linseed are also significant crops.
• Nearly half of the world’s maize is grown in North America, known as corn. Wheat production is concentrated in the prairie region of Canada and the United States, accounting for about one-fifth of the world’s wheat.
• Cotton and tobacco thrive in the Southern parts of the Mississippi river basin, with the United States and Mexico leading in cotton production.
• Along the Gulf Coast, rice and sugarcane are cultivated, while the tropical lowland of central America is famous for banana cultivation.
• North America contributes about one-fourth of the world’s total cow’s milk production and is a leading producer of meat.
• North America holds the world’s largest producer titles for maize, wheat, and soybean.
• Cuba, often referred to as the sugar bowl of the world, is the world’s largest sugar exporter among the seven continents and is located in North America.

Forests:

• Coniferous forests dominate extensive areas of Canada, Northern United States, and the Western Cordilleras. 
• These forests serve as a valuable source of softwood, providing essential products like pulp and paper, douglas fir, and white pine (utilized for house-building materials), cellulose, resin, and turpentine. In the temperate regions’ southern part, deciduous trees such as pineapple, oak, and beech coexist with coniferous trees. White pine and spruce trees contribute to pulp for newspapers, oak and willow wood for furniture, and maple tree sap for sugar.
• Tropical rainforests thrive in Southern Mexico and Central American countries, yielding high-quality hardwoods like mahogany and logwood.

Minerals:

• North America is a significant producer of petroleum, natural gas, nickel, zinc, asbestos, gold, silver, copper, and iron ore. The Canadian Shield contains deposits of nickel, iron ore, gold, platinum, and copper, with Lake Superior being a leading producer of high-grade iron ore. Ontario hosts the world’s largest gold mine. 
• The Appalachian highlands contribute abundant anthracite and high-grade bituminous coal, boasting the world’s largest soft coal field. The Gulf Coast and the Atlantic coastal plain are major producers of petroleum and natural gas, with the United States ranking as the second-largest global producer of natural gas. Sulphur, phosphate, and potash are also found in this region. 
• The Western Cordilleras possess extensive deposits of copper, mineral oil, natural gas, coal, and rock phosphate. British Columbia holds the largest global deposits of lead and zinc, while Mexico has been a leading silver producer worldwide for many years.

Transportation:

• The Panama Canal, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, holds significant commercial and strategic importance. In North America, highways are referred to as Freeways or Superways. 
• Navigational rivers like the Mississippi and St. Lawrence, along with the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence combined, create the world’s largest and busiest inland waterways. Kennedy Airport in New York is recognized as the busiest international airport globally.

Population:

• The North American population comprises indigenous people (native Indians) and immigrants from various parts of the world. The total population of North America was 366 million in 2019, with a population density of 23 people per square kilometer. Approximately 90% of Canada remains largely uninhabited due to its harsh climate, with the majority of the population concentrated along the narrow Southern fringe.

Major Countries of North America

Country	Major Countries of North America Description
Canada	– Canada boasts the world’s longest coastline, spanning 243,042 km.
	– Wood Buffalo National Park, located in northern Canada, is the country’s largest national park.
	– Woodcutters in Canada are known as Lumberjacks.
	– Hamilton houses Canada’s largest iron and steel industry.
United States	– Washington DC, the capital of the United States of America, is situated on the Potomac River.
	– The United States is the leading global producer of airplanes.
	– Major production centers in the United States include Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Detroit, and Chicago.

North American Countries and their Capitals

Country	Capital
Belize	Belmopan
Canada	Ottawa
Costa Rica	San Jose
Cuba	Havana
Dominica	Roseau
El Salvador	San Salvador
Guatemala	Guatemala City
Honduras	Tegucigalpa
Mexico	Mexico City
Nicaragua	Managua
Panama	Panama City
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Basseterre
Saint Lucia	Castries
St. Vincent and the Grenadines	Kingstown
United States of America	Washington DC
Greenland	Nuuk

South America

• South America, the fourth-largest continent in the world, is primarily situated in the Southern hemisphere. The Andes Mountains, with an average height second only to the Himalayas, dominate its landscape. The collective regions of South America, Central America, Mexico, and the West Indies constitute Latin America.
• Bounded by the Caribbean Sea to the North-West and North, the Atlantic Ocean to the North-East, East, and South-East, and the Pacific Ocean to the West, South America is intricately connected to North America through the Isthmus of Panama. Brazil, the largest country in South America, encompasses approximately half of the continent’s land area and population. On the contrary, Suriname holds the title of the smallest country with the lowest population in South America.
• South America boasts the world’s highest uninterrupted waterfall, Angel Falls, situated in Venezuela. Additionally, it is home to Kaieteur Falls in Guyana, the highest single-drop waterfall globally.

Physical Features

South America’s physical features are diverse, and categorized as follows:

• The Western Coastal Strip: A narrow strip of lowland along the Pacific with significant variations from North to South.
• The Western Mountains (Andes): Stretching from the Caribbean Sea to the Southern tip, the Andes are the second-highest mountain system globally, characterized as young-fold mountains.
• The Central Plains: Lying between the Andes and Eastern highlands, this plain encompasses the basins of Orinoco, Amazon, and the Plata rivers. The Amazon River, the world’s largest, rises in the Andes and flows across Brazil, ultimately emptying into the Atlantic Ocean.

The Eastern Highlands:

The Eastern Highlands: Formed by the Guyana and Brazilian highlands along the Eastern coast, featuring the world’s highest waterfall, the Angel Falls, located in South-Eastern Venezuela.

Climate

South America experiences a variety of climates:

• Equatorial Climate: The Amazon basin exhibits a hot and wet climate throughout the year.
• Savanna Climate: Beyond the Amazon forests, a Savanna climate prevails with distinct dry and rainy seasons, mainly during the summer.
• Heavy Rainfall: Northern Argentina and Western Paraguay encounter heavy rains during the summer.
• Desert Climate: Parts of Southern Peru and Northern Chile, specifically the Atacama Desert, experience a hot, desert-type climate.
• Mediterranean Climate: Central Chile features a Mediterranean climate with rainy winters and warm, dry summers.
• In Southern Chile, there is oceanic or marine type of climate is found. Rainfall occurs here throughout the year and the climate is cool.
• South of the tropical grasslands of Southern Brazil lies the region of temperate grasslands. This region has warm climate with rain throughout the year (more in summer.)
• On the Eastern side of the Andes, the desert of Patagonia is found. Its climate is dry because it lies in the rain shadow area of Western mountains.
• There are seven types of climate are found in South America i.e., Equatorial climate, Savanna type of climate, Prairie climate, Tropical climate, Desert climate, Mediterranean climate and Temperate Maritime climate.

Vegetation

The Amazon basin is cloaked in equatorial rainforests locally referred to as Selvas.

• The Savanna climate region features grasslands known as Llanos in the Orinoco river basin to the North and Campos in central Brazil to the South.
• The lowlands of Northern Argentina and Western Paraguay are adorned with dense forests and grasslands locally known as Gran Chaco.
• Desert-type climates host scrubs, prickly pear, and cactus.
• Mediterranean climates showcase evergreen forests with oak, walnut, chestnut, and fig trees.
• Ocean or Marine climates feature temperate mixed forests where valuable trees like beech and pine thrive. The temperate grasslands in central Argentina are named Pampas.

Forests

• A significant portion of South America is covered with forests, predominantly tropical rainforests in the Amazon basin.
• These forests house hardwood treasures such as mahogany, with the Amazon basin being the home of the rubber tree.
• Balsa, the lightest wood globally, comes from the Amazon rainforests. Carnauba palm trees in Brazil yield wax used in furniture polish, shoe polish, and candles.
• Cinchona bark, rich in quinine, serves medicinal purposes. Chicle is harvested for chewing gum.
• Yerba, an important tree of the Eastern highlands, has leaves brewed like tea.
• Quebracho, meaning Axe breaker, is a vital hardwood tree in Gran Chaco, yielding tannic acid for leather tanning.
• The forests along the Eastern slopes of the Andes are known as Montana, providing valuable softwood.

Crops

• Only 10% of the soil is suitable for farming, with most fertile land found in Argentina and Uruguay.
• Wheat and maize are crucial crops in South America, with Argentina and Chile producing wheat and Brazil and Argentina being major maize producers (originating in South America).
• Coffee, sugarcane, cocoa, and bananas are significant cash crops, with Brazil, Colombia, and Ecuador leading in coffee production globally. Brazil also excels in cotton cultivation.

Wildlife

• The South American continent is home to around 1500 species of vibrant birds, with the Condor being the largest bird of prey globally.
• Rhea, a flightless bird similar to the ostrich of Africa and emu of Australia, resides in South America.
• Spider monkeys showcase acrobatic skills, owl monkeys are nocturnal lovers, and squirrel monkeys are known for their gentleness.
• Anaconda, an enormous python approximately 10 m long, inhabits South America.
• Puma, a formidable cat family member, stronger than leopards, is found in South America.
• Llamas, surefooted beasts of burden, populate the highlands of the Andes.
• Alpaca, a smaller llama variety, and Guanaco, a wild llama variety, are found on high plateaus and in the Patagonian desert.
• South America contributes to about one-fifth of the world’s total fish production, with Peru being a leading country in the fishing industry globally.

Cattle Rearing

• Prominent regions for cattle rearing in South America include the semi-humid areas of Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil.
• In this region, the original grass is substituted with a more valuable variety called Alfalfa.
• Alfalfa, a leguminous plant, not only provides nutrition but also helps maintain soil fertility.
• Sheep rearing is prevalent in Argentina and Chile, with Argentina being a major meat exporter.

Minerals

• South America contributes approximately one-seventh of the world’s mineral oil, with significant deposits in Venezuela and the islands of Trinidad and Tobago.
• Much of the oil extraction takes place beneath the lake waters in Maracaibo, Venezuela.
• Brazil hosts one of the world’s largest iron ore deposits, while Trinidad has substantial asphalt or coal-tar reserves.
• Chile leads global copper production, and Bolivia ranks as the world’s fourth-largest tin producer.
• Rich nitrates, vital for manure and fertilizers, are found in the Atacama deserts of South America, with Chile being the primary producer.
• Guano islands off Peru’s coast boast the world’s most concentrated single source of natural manure.
• South America holds substantial reserves of bauxite, manganese, silver, and antimony.
• Surinam and Guyana are major bauxite producers in South America.

Population

• As of 2021, South America’s total population stands at 435,375,625, with a population density of 25 persons per sq. km. The region’s population is primarily composed of three main racial groups: American Indians, Blacks, and Europeans.
• Mixed-race communities, including Mestizos, Mulattos, and Zambos, are widespread across South America.
• Large uninhabited areas include the Amazon lowlands, Llanos, Gran Chaco, Guyana highlands, Atacama, and Patagonia deserts.
• Portuguese and Spanish are the predominant languages spoken.
• South America is home to various geographical extremes, such as the Andes, the driest non-polar place on Earth (Atacama desert), the largest rainforest (Amazon Rainforest), the highest capital city (La Paz, Bolivia), the highest commercially navigable lake (Lake Titicaca), the Southernmost permanently inhabited community (Puerto Toro, Chile), and the largest salt lake (Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia and Chile).

Major Countries of South America

Country	Brazil (Coffee Pot of the World)
Area	Fifth largest country in the world
Name Origin	Named after the redwood tree “brasil”
Forests	Among the richest in the world
Products	Provides many useful products
Main Crop	Coffee
Plantations	Large coffee estate plantations known as “Fazenda”
Railways	Some of the highest railways in the world are across the Andes in Chile

Country	Argentina (The Land of Wheat and Cattle)
Geography	Mainly a country of lowlands
Grasslands	Large grasslands known as “Pampas” are considered the heart of Argentina
Crops	Famous for wheat production
Important Tree	Quebracho is the most important tree
Bark Use	Tannin can be extracted from its bark, used for tanning leather
Mountains	Lofty Andes mountains form a boundary between Argentina and Chile
Railway Line	The trans-Andean railway line between Chile and Argentina passes over some of the highest mountains in the world

South America Countries and their Capitals

Country	Capital
Argentina	Buenos Aires
Guyana	George Town
Brazil	Brasilia
Chile	Santiago
Colombia	Bogota
Bolivia	La Paz
Suriname	Paramaribo
Uruguay	Montevideo
Venezuela	Caracas
Aruba	Oranjestad
Ecuador	Quito
French Guiana	Cayenne

Europe

• Europe is a peninsula of the Eurasian continent and ranks sixth in area among the seven continents. 
• It is the most densely populated continent in the world. Bounded by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south, it is separated from Asia in the east by the Ural Mountains, Caucasus Mountains, and the Caspian Sea. 
• Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark collectively form Scandinavia, while Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia are known as the Baltic states. Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg are referred to as the Low Countries, and the Balkan states include Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, and Albania. 
• The Vatican City, a small independent state within Rome, serves as the seat of the Pope and headquarters of the Roman Catholic Church. The British Isles encompasses the main islands of Ireland (Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic) and Great Britain (Scotland, Wales, and England), along with several smaller islands.

Physical Features:

Europe can be divided into four major physical regions:

The North-Western Highlands:

• Extending from Finland through Sweden, Norway, and the British Isles to Iceland, the northern part of the highland is known as the Fenno-Scandian shield. The rocks in these shields are the oldest in Europe. This area is rich in metallic minerals like iron and copper but lacks fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Along the Norwegian coast, the highlands reach into the Atlantic Ocean, forming fjords.

The North European Plain:

• Extending from the Urals in the east to the Atlantic coast in the west, this plain is bounded by the White Sea to the east and the North-Western Highlands to the south. It has long been a significant farming area and is drained by major navigational rivers like the Seine and Rhine. Other important rivers include the Danube, Dnieper, Don, and Volga. The plain is underlain with deposits of coal, oil, and natural gas.

The Central Uplands:

• Encompassing the Meseta in Spain and Portugal, the Massif Central, and Jura Mountains in France, the Black Forest in Germany, and several low ranges in Czech and Slovak republics, two major rivers flow in this region—Rhine to the north and Rhone to the south. The Rhine-Rhone canal connects these two rivers, enabling continental waterway transportation.

The Alpine System:

• Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Caspian Sea in the east, the Alps are the most important mountain system. Mont Blanc (4807m) is the highest peak located in France. Other significant mountain ranges include Pyrenees, Carpathian, and Caucasus. The highest peak in Europe is Mount Elbrus (5633m) in Caucasus.

Plateaus/Mountain Ranges/Peninsulas:

• Major plateaus in Europe include the Iberian plateau, central plateaus of France, and the Vosages and Black Forest of Germany. Major mountain ranges consist of Cantabrian, Pyrenees, Apennines, Dinaric Alps, Carpathian, Kjolen, and Balkan ranges. Major peninsulas include Jutland, Scandinavian, Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas.

Important Lakes of Europe

• Constance Lake This lake located in the Alps mountain is the meeting place of Germany Austria and Switzerland. The Rhine river passes through it.
• Ladoga Lake It is a fresh water lake located in Russia.
• It is the largest lake in Europe in terms of area Onega Lake It is a fresh water lake in Russia which is the second largest lake in Europe after Ladoga in terms of area.
• Vattern and Vänern These lakes are located in Sweden.

Major Rivers of Europe Continent

River	Country	Features
Ural River	Russia, Kazakhstan	– Origin: Mount of Ural Mountains – Estuary: Caspian Sea – Borders Europe and Asia – Third largest river in Europe
Volga River	Russia	– Origin: Valde Hill – Estuary: Caspian Sea – Longest river in Europe
Vistula	Poland	– Estuary: Baltic Sea – Longest and largest river in Poland – Cities on its banks: Warsaw (capital of Poland) and Krakow – Lodz, known as the Manchester of Poland, due to textile industry
Elbe	Germany, Czech Republic	– Estuary: North Sea – Hamburg, a port city in Germany, located at its mouth – Dresden, Germany, known for ceramics, located on its coast
Spree	Germany	– Tributary of Elbe – Berlin, the capital of Germany, located on its coast
Rhine River	Switzerland, Germany,	– Origin: Alps Mountains Austria, Lichtenstein, France, Netherlands – Estuary: North Sea – Rotterdam situated at its mouth in Netherlands – Busiest terrestrial waterway in Europe
		– Cities on its banks: Bonn (Germany), Basel (Switzerland) – Black Forest (Germany) to the East, Vosges Mountains (France) to the West – Rhine river passes through fault valleys
Seine	France	– Origin: Plateau part of France – Estuary: English Channel – Paris, the capital of France, located on its banks – Paris famous for cosmetics – Port of Le Havre located at its mouth
Loire	France	– Estuary: Bay of Biscay (Atlantic Ocean) – Longest river in France
Tagus	France, Spain	– Nantes, France, located on its banks, known for paper industry – Origin: Pyrenees Mountains – Estuary: Bay of Biscay
	Portugal	– Cities on its coast: Toulouse (aircraft industry), Bordeaux (wine industry) – Source: Sierra de Albrecin mountain range (Spain) – Estuary: Atlantic Ocean – Longest river in Iberian Peninsula
		– Lisbon, capital of Portugal, located on its banks – Creates boundaries between Spain and Portugal

River	Country	Features
Douro	Portugal	– Duero basin is famous for wine production. – Porto port is situated at its mouth.
Guadalquivir	Spain	– Origin: Cazorla range (Spain) – Estuary: Gulf of Cadiz (Atlantic Ocean) – Most important river of Spain.
Ebro	Spain	– Origin: Cantabrian Mountains – Estuary: Mediterranean Sea
Rhône	France and Switzerland	– Origin: Lake Geneva (Switzerland) – Estuary: Gulf of Leon (Mediterranean Sea) – Cities on its banks: Lyon, Marseille – Lyon is called the Silk City of France – Marseille is an important European port.
Po	Italy	– Origin: Alps Mountains – Estuary: Adriatic Sea – Longest river in Italy – Also known as the Ganga of Italy – Flows through Lombardy plain, Europe’s largest rice-producing region – Milan is Manchester of Italy, Turin is Detroit of Italy.
Tiber River	Italy	– Source: Mount Fumaiolo – Estuary: Mediterranean Sea – Vatican City (smallest country) and Rome (capital of Italy) are situated on its banks.
Danube	Germany, Austria,	– Origin: Black Forest (Germany) – Estuary: Black Sea – Passes through 9 countries: Germany, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine – Europe’s second-largest river.
	Romania, Bulgaria,	– Four capital cities on its banks: Belgrade, Vienna, Bratislava, Budapest – Maximum countries (9 or 10 including Moldova) – Moldova included in some sources – Western Europe’s largest river.
	Slovakia, Hungary,
	Ukraine, Croatia,
	Serbia
Dniester	Ukraine, Moldova	– Origin: Carpathian mountain range – Important river of Moldova – Falls into the Black Sea forming the border between Moldova and Ukraine.
Dnieper	Russia, Belarus, Ukraine	– Origin: Valdai Hills (Russia) – Estuary: Black Sea – Longest river of Ukraine.
Don River	Russia	– Origin: Tula Oblast – Estuary: Azov Sea – Rostov city of Russia is situated on its banks.
Thames River	England	– Estuary: North Sea – Second-longest river in Britain – Cities on its banks: London (capital of England), Oxford, Reading.

Major Straits of Europe

Strait	Features
Strait of Gibraltar	– Separates Europe from Africa.
Strait of Bonifacio	– Connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean. – Famous as the Key to the Mediterranean Sea.
North Channel	– Separates the island of Sardinia in Italy and Corsica in France.
Dover Strait	– Connects the Tyrrhenian Sea with the Mediterranean Sea.
St. George’s Channel	– Separates Northern Ireland from Scotland.
Messina	– Connects the Irish Sea to the Atlantic Ocean.
Strait of Otranto	– Separates France from Great Britain.
Kerch Strait	– Connects the North Sea with the English Channel.
Strait of Sicily	– Separates the Republic of Ireland from Great Britain.
Strait of Bonifacio	– Connects the Irish Sea to the Celtic Sea.
Strait of Messina	– Separates the Italian island of Sicily from the Italian Peninsula.
Strait of Otranto	– Connects the Tyrrhenian Sea with the Ionian Sea.
Strait of Albania	– Separates Italy from the country of Albania in the Balkan Peninsula.
Strait of Otranto	– Connects the Adriatic Sea with the Ionian Sea.
Kerch Strait	– Separates the Crimean Peninsula from the Russian mainland.
Bosporus Strait	– Connects the Sea of Azov with the Black Sea.
Dardanelles Strait	– Separates Turkey’s Istanbul from the Turkish mainland.
Bosporus Strait	– Connects the Sea of Marmara with the Black Sea.
Dardanelles Strait	– Separates the Balkan Peninsula and Anatolia Peninsula.
Bosporus Strait	– Connects the Sea of Marmara and Aegean Sea.

Climate

While a significant portion of Europe lies in the temperate zone, the climate is generally described as mild.

• West European Type: The moderating influence of the Westerlies, combined with proximity to seas and oceans, maintains warm summers and cool winters in Western Europe. Temperature remains consistent, and rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year.
• Mediterranean Type: Southern Europe experiences long, hot, and dry summers, accompanied by warm and wet winters.
• Continental Type: Central and Eastern Europe witnesses hot summers and very cold winters with reduced rainfall as the ocean’s influence diminishes eastward.
• Tundra Climate: In Northern Europe (north of the Arctic Circle), precipitation is minimal and mostly in the form of snow. Summers are short with long, warm days, and the sun remains visible even at midnight. The land is covered with snow for a significant part of the year.

Vegetation

• Common fruits in the Mediterranean region include olives, figs, grapes, and oranges. Tundra vegetation consists of lichens, moss, and stunted trees. 
• The Taiga, south of the Tundra, is characterized by pine, spruce, and fir trees, while the mixed forest belt includes common trees like oak, ash, and poplar.
• The South-Eastern part of Europe features extensive grasslands known as steppes, extending from the Danube valley in Romania to Ukraine.

Crops

• Wheat is cultivated in various European regions, including Ukraine, Paris basin, Low Countries, North European plain, and the plains of Hungary and Po valley in Italy. Barley and oats, complementing wheat, are also grown.
• Sugar-beet, a primary sugar source, and potatoes are cultivated in the plains of Central and Eastern Europe. Flax, the sole fiber crop used for linen, is grown in Belgium and the Baltic states.
• Europe boasts diverse fruits such as apples, olives, grapes, peaches, and oranges.
• The Mediterranean region, Bulgaria, Netherlands, and Belgium are known for vegetable cultivation.
• Bulgaria’s roses and the Netherlands’ tulips are globally recognized. The Netherlands has reclaimed land from the sea by constructing large embankments, known as Dykes, and the water from the enclosed land, called Polders, is pumped into the sea.

Fisheries

• Countries around North sea of Europe especially Denmark is famous for dairy industry.
• Dogger Bank and the Great Fisher Bank in Europe are important fishing grounds.
• The major fishing countries are Norway, Sweden, Iceland, Denmark, Netherlands, France, Germany, United Kingdom, Spain and Portugal.
• Norway has transferred its technology to India to develop deep sea fishing along the Kerala coast.

Forests

• A large part of the forest cover in Europe is confined to Scandinavian, Alpine mountains and taiga region of Russia.
• Logging and lumbering are important activities of the forest areas.
• Timber and wood pulp are important forest products.
• News print, paper, rayon and other synthetic fibers are produced from wood.

Minerals

• Coal deposits are present in Great Britain and the mainland region of Europe, spanning from Northeast France to Poland. Spain, Ukraine, and Russia also have notable coal reserves. Petroleum reserves are found in the North Sea, Romania, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Russia.
• France, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Sweden, the United Kingdom, Germany, Russia, and Spain have significant deposits of iron ore, manganese, copper, bauxite, sulphur, and potash.
• Italy, Belgium, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Poland rely on imported iron ore to produce steel.
• Austria, Switzerland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Belgium, and the Netherlands are recognized for their production of electronic instruments, watches, metallurgical and glass articles, and chemicals.

Drainage System

• Major rivers in Europe include the Danube, Dnieper, Don, Elbe, Loire, Oder, Po, Rhine, Rhone, Shannon, Tagus, and Volga.
• The Rhine stands out as the busiest inland waterway in Europe, while the Seine, Thames, Danube, and Volga are also significant waterways. The Kiel Canal, spanning 99 km, connects the North Sea and the Baltic Sea.
• The strategic location of Cologne city (Germany) is crucial, as it serves as a key point for most sea-going vessels on the Rhine River.
• Romania, despite its medium size, boasts nine ports along the entirely navigable Danube River over a distance of only 1075 km.
• Denmark comprises the Jutland Peninsula and more than 400 islands.

Major countries of Europe

Country	United Kingdom (UK)
Major Countries of Europe
Description	• It is separated from the mainland of Europe by the English Channel.
	• Ben Nevis (1343m) is the highest peak of the UK.
	• London, its capital, is situated on the banks of the River Thames.
	• Dogger Bank is the main fishing ground over here.
	• The City of Sheffield is the biggest cutlery city in the world.
	• Birmingham is known as the steel city of the UK.
Country	France
Description	• Paris, the capital of France, is known as the city of fashion.
	• Paris is situated on the banks of the River Seine.
	• More than 90% of its iron ore comes from the Lorraine field.
	• Champagne is a famous wine here.
	• Toulouse city is the largest center for aerospace.
Country	Germany
Description	• Berlin, the capital of Germany, is situated on the banks of the Spree River.
	• Ruhr is the biggest coal-producing area of Europe. It is also called the heart of industrial Europe.
	• Dresden is known for its ceramics, Munich is known for breweries.
	• Germany is one of the largest producers of rye, potatoes, and sugar beet.
Country	Russia
Description	• Area-wise, it is the biggest country in the world.
	• Ural mountains, Ural river, and Caspian sea divide Russia into Europe and Asiatic parts.
	• Mt. Elbrus (5633m) in the Caucasus mountains is the highest peak of Russia.
	• Verkhoyansk, the coldest place on Earth, is situated in the Tundra region of Russia.
	• Trans-Siberian Railway is the longest railway in the world. St Petersburg and Moscow are connected with the industrial centers of Siberia by the Trans-Siberian Railway.
	• Moscow is a port of five seas – Caspian Sea, Black Sea, Baltic Sea, Lake Ladoga, and the Arctic Ocean through the White Sea.

European Countries and Capitals

Country	Capital
Albania	Tirana
Luxembourg	Luxembourg
Andorra	Andorra la Vella
Malta	Valletta
Austria	Vienna
Moldova	Chisinau
Belarus	Minsk
Belgium	Brussels
Monaco	Monaco
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Sarajevo
Montenegro	Podgorica
Netherlands	Amsterdam
Bulgaria	Sofia
Croatia	Zagreb
North Macedonia	Skopje
Czechia	Prague
Norway	Oslo
Denmark	Copenhagen
Poland	Warsaw
Estonia	Tallinn
Portugal	Lisbon
Romania	Bucharest

Country	Capital
Finland	Helsinki
Russia	Moscow
France	Paris
San Marino	San Marino
Germany	Berlin
Serbia	Belgrade
Greece	Athens
Slovakia	Bratislava
Hungary	Budapest
Slovenia	Ljubljana
Iceland	Reykjavik
Spain	Madrid
Ireland	Dublin
Sweden	Stockholm
Italy	Rome
Switzerland	Bern
Latvia	Riga
Ukraine	Kiev
Liechtenstein	Vaduz
United Kingdom	London
Lithuania	Vilnius

Population

• According to the World Population Prospect, 2019, Europe’s population is 747 million, with a population density of 34 persons per sq. km.
• Europe exhibits uneven population distribution. The plains of Europe have a relatively high population density.
• The industrial regions of the UK, France, Germany, and Italy have a high population density, while Eastern and Southern Europe have moderate density, and Northern Europe is thinly populated.
• Major international airports in Europe include London, Paris, Frankfurt, Berlin, Geneva, Rome, Moscow, and Amsterdam.
• Russia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey are transcontinental countries, spanning both Europe and Asia.
• Politically considered European countries, Armenia and Cyprus, are geographically located in West Asia.
• Europe is surrounded by water bodies on all three sides: the Arctic Ocean in the North, the Atlantic Ocean in the West, and the Mediterranean Sea in the South.
• Europe is separated from Asia by the Caspian Sea and Ural Mountains. Mt. Elbrus is the highest peak in Europe. Finland is known as the land of lakes due to the formation of lakes from melting ice sheets. Spain and Portugal together form the Iberian Peninsula.

Antarctica

• Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent.
• Situated entirely in the Southern Hemisphere, with the South Pole nearly at its center.
• It is the only continent completely covered in ice, earning it the nickname “White Continent.”
• Antarctica is the coldest and loneliest continent on Earth.
• The mainland was first discovered in 1820, and exploration began in the 20th century.
• Vinson Massif (4892 m) is the highest peak, and Mount Erebus is the only live volcano.

Land and Climate

• About 99% of the continent is permanently covered with ice. Antarctica is surrounded by the Southern Ocean, where surface water temperature rarely rises above 40°C.
• The South Pole experiences the lowest temperature recorded at -95°C during winters. In summer (November to February), the sun never sets, but mid-summer temperatures usually don’t rise above 0°C.
• During winter (May to August), the sun never rises. Winds blow at high speeds throughout the year, relatively calm at the continent’s center.

Resources

• Limited amounts of coal, iron, and copper have been found, but commercial utilization faces difficulties.
• Approximately 70% of the world’s fresh water is stored in Antarctica’s ice caps and sheets.
• Icebergs, formed from these ice caps, break away and float in the surrounding sea.
• The land surface is mostly barren and is a cold desert. Penguins, sea birds and seals are abundant. Whales are found in surrounding sea.
• Krill is very small fish (length up to 6 cm and weight, 1-105 gm) which provides fish meat, krill meat paste (used as bread spread) and krill protein. There is no time zone in Antarctica continent.
• The largest land animal in Antarctica is a 1.3 cm long insect known as Belgica Antarctica.
• Till date, India has launched 40 scientific expeditions to Antarctica.
• The Indian Antarctic expeditions began in 1981, led by Dr. SZ Qasim.
• India has now credited to have built three permanent research base stations in Antarctica namely Dakshin Gangotri, Maitri and Bharati.
• As of today, India has two operational research stations in Antarctica named Maitri and Bharati
• The National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), Goa, manages the entire Indian Antarctic program.

Prelims Facts

• Three mountain ranges determining the boundary between India and Myanmar are – Burmese Arakan Yoma, Patkai range, Naga and Chin hills [IAS (Pre) 1995, RAS/RTS (Pre) 2000]
• Dasht-e-Lut is located in? – Iran [UPPSC (Mains) 2015]
• The largest desert of South Asia is – Thar [UPPSC (Pre) 1996]
• Where does the Taklamakan desert lies in? – China UPPSC (Mains) 2008, BPSC (Pre) 2011]
• The area known as ‘Golan Heights’ refers to the region of – Middle East [IAS (Pre) 2015]
• Which country is called Land of White Elephants? – Thailand [UPPSC (Pre) 2010]
• Which country is known as ‘Mistress of Eastern Sea’? – Sri Lanka [BPSC (Pre) 1994]
• Which city is called ‘Manchester of East’?- Osaka [UPPSC (Mains) 2014]
• Which country is called the ‘Land of Morning Calm? – South Korea [UPPSC (Pre) 2015]
• Syr and Amu river fall into which sea? – Aral sea [RAS/RTS (Pre) 2012]
• The largest river of Asia which falls into Pacific ocean is – Yangtze /UPPSC (Mains) 2016]
• Which country is known by the name of the Land of the Rising Sun? – Japan [UPPSC (Pre) 1991]
• In which country is the Gobi desert located ? – Mongolia [BPSC (Pre) 1992, UPPSC (Mains) 1993]
• The average elevation of the Tibetan plateau above sea level is – 5 km [IAS (Pre) 1994)
• Which plateau is known as ‘Roof of the world? – Pamir Plateau [BPSC (Pre) 2000
• The Great Asian river the Mekong does not flow through – Malaysia [JPSC (Pre) 2011]
• Israel has common borders with which countries? – Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Egypt [UPPSC (Pre) 2017]
• Huangpu river flows through which city of China? – Shanghai [IAS (Pre) 2006]
• Redcliffe line defines the boundary between – India and Pakistan [UPPSC (Pre) 2014]
• Kanto plain, a highly developed and urbanised plain is in – Japan [RAS/RTS (Pre) 1999, 2000]
• 38th Parallel border lines divide which two countries? – North and South Korea [UPPSC (Mains) 2005, CGPSC (Pre) 2008
• Which country has the highest number of islands in the world? – Sweden [BPSC (Pre) 2019]
• The only landlocked country in South -East Asia is – Laos [UPPSC (Mains) 2015]
• Which island is the largest island of Japan – Honshu [BPSC (Pre) 2020]
• Which country provides best example of radial drainage? – Sri Lanka [UPPSC (Mains) 2008]
• The Greatest delta of the world is formed by – Ganga and Brahmaputra [BPSC (Pre) 1996, 2008]
• Which lakes of West Africa has become dry and turned into desert? – Lake Faguibine [IAS (Pre) 2022
• The term Levant roughly corresponds to which regions? – Region along the Eastern Mediterranean Shore [IAS (Pre) 2012]
• Which river of Africa crosses Tropic of Capricorn twice? – Limpopo river [UPPSC (Pre) 2010]
• Which continent has the largest number of countries? – Africa [UPPSC (Mains) 2015, BPSC (Pre) 2020]
• Which Lake forms an International boundary between Tanzania and Uganda? – Victoria [IAS (Pre) 2000]
• In which continent the Atlas mountain situated? – Africa [RAS/RTS (Pre) 2008]
• The waterfall ‘Victoria’ is associated with the river. – Zambezi [IAS (Pre) 2003]
• The Horn of Africa consist like – Somalia, Ethiopia and Djibouti [UPPSC (Pre) 1999]
• The correct sequence of the great lakes from East to West is – Ontario – Erie – Huron – Michigan – Superior IPSC (Pre) 2002]
• Which state of the USA is also known as the Grass Blue State? – Kentucky [UPPSC (Mains) 2004]
• Finger lake region is located in which country? – USA RAS/RTS (Pre) 2008)
• Alaska is a part of which country? – USA IMPPSC (Pre) 2012]
• The Glacial Lake Ltasca is the Source of the river. – Mississippi [UPPSC (Mains) 2015]

UPSC NCERT Practice Questions

1. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists. UPPSC (Pre) 2019

List I	List II
A. Uzbekistan	1. Tashkent
B. Tajikistan	2. Dushanbe
C. Kyrgyzstan	3. Bishkek
D. Turkmenistan	4. Ashgabat

Codes

(a) 1 2 3 4

(b) 1 2 4 3

(c) 1 2 4 2 

(d) 1 4 2 3

2. Which of the following represents the correct

North to South sequence of following four islands of Japan? UP RO/ARO (Pre) 2017

(a) Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku

(b) Hokkaido, Shikoku, Honshu, Kyushu

(c) Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu

(d) Hokkaido, Kyushu, Honshu, Shikoku

3. Three mountain ranges determining the boundary between India and Myanmar are IAS (Pre) 1995, RAS/RTS (Pre) 2000

(a) Khasi, Patkai and Arakan Yoma

(b) Akai mountain range

(c) Great dividing range

(d) None of the above

4. Between India and East Asia, the navigation time and distance can be greatly reduced by which of the following? IAS (Pre) 2011

1. Deepening the Malacca straits between Malaysia and Indonesia.

2. Opening a new canal between the Gulf of Siam and the Andaman sea.

Which of the statements) given above is/are correct?

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

5. Assertion (A) Egypt is the gift of the Nile. Reason (R) It is an oasis of the Sahara desert. UPPSC (Pre) 2016

Codes

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.

(c) A is true, but R is false. 

(d) A is false, but R is true.

6. Which one of the following pair (s) is/are correctly matched?

Geographical Features                     Regions

(a) Abyssinian Plateau                        Arabia

(b) Atlas Mountains                         North western Africa

(c) Guiana Highlands                     South-Western Africa

(d) Okavango Basin                           Patagonia

7. Which one of the following pair (s) is/are is not correctly matched? Countries UPPSC (Pre) 2020

 Countries                                    Capitals

(a) Morocco                                     Rabat

(b) Tunisia                                          Tunis

(c) Aigeria                                         Algiers

(d) Cape Verde                                Bamako

8 The term Levant often heard in the news roughly corresponds to which of the following regions? IAS (Pre) 1998, 2012

(a) Region along the Eastern Mediterranean shores.

b) Region along North African shores stretching from Egypt to Morocco.

(c) Region along Persian Gulf and Horn of Africa.

(d) The entire coastal areas of Mediterranean sea.

9. Which of the following pairs) is/are not correctly matched? IAS (Pre) 2005

Current names                  Old names

(a) Harare                         Salisbury

(b) Ethiopia                         Abyssinia

(c) Ghana                          Dutch Guiana

(d) Kinshasa                        Leopoldville

10. Which one of the following is a part of the Congo Basin? UPPSC (Pre) 2023

(a) Cameroon

(b) Nigeria

(c) South Sudan

(d) Uganda

11. At the mouth of which of the following rivers the ‘birds foot’ type delta is formed? UPPSC (Pre) 2018

(a) Huang Ho

(b) Nile

(c) Danube

(d) Mississippi

12. Which one of the following pairs is/are not correctly matched? IAS (Pre) 2005

(a) Bahamas                : Nassau

(b) Costa Rica              : San Jose

(c) Nicaragua                : Balmopan

(d) Dominican Republic : Santo Domingo

13. Assertion (A) The Pampas plain is the main region for cultivation in Argentina.

Reason (R) The fertile soil of Pampas and the temperate climate are very useful for growing crops and grasses. UP RO/ARO (Mains) 2016

Codes

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.

(c) A is true, but R is false.

(d) A is false, but R is true.

14. Which one of the following statements is correct? UPPSC (Mains) 2012, BPSC (Pre) 2020

(a) Greenland is the second largest island in the world.

(b) Nuuk is a small town of Greenland.

(c) The elevation of Nuuk above the sea level is 3 m.

(d) Greenland belongs to the USA.

15. Gulf of Bothnia is located between which of the following countries? Punjab PSC (Pre) 2014

1. Finland

2. Norway

3. Sweden

4. Estonia

Codes

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 1 and 3

(d) 1 and 4

16. Which of the following pair (s) is/are not correctly matched?

(a) Titicaca Lake             Bolivia – Peru

(b) Lake Urmia                 Iran

(c) Lake Reindeer            Russia

(d) Lake Athabaska          Canada

17. Through which one of the following straits does a tunnel connect the United Kingdom and France? IAS (Pre) 2007, UPPSC (Mains) 2018

(a) Davis Strait

(b) Denmark Strait

(c) Strait of Dover

(d) Strait of Gibraltar

KNow Right Answer

1 (a)

2 (c)

3 (d)

4 (b)

5 (a)

6 (b)

7 (d)

8 (a)

9 (c)

10 (a)

11 (d)

12 (c)

13 (a)

14 (c)

15 (c)

16 (c)

17 (c)

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What is the significance of studying regional geography in the context of UPSC preparation?

Answer: Regional geography is crucial for UPSC preparation as it provides a deeper understanding of the spatial distribution of physical and human phenomena. It helps aspirants comprehend the geographical diversity, resources, and socio-economic factors influencing different regions. This knowledge is essential for tackling questions related to regional development, environmental issues, and regional planning in the UPSC exam.

2. How can NCERT notes on geography aid UPSC aspirants in mastering regional geography?

Answer: NCERT notes on geography serve as a foundational resource for UPSC aspirants. They offer a systematic and comprehensive overview of regional geography, covering diverse topics such as landforms, climate, agriculture, and industries specific to different regions. By studying these notes, aspirants can build a strong base, grasp key concepts, and develop a nuanced understanding of regional variations, which is crucial for answering UPSC questions that often require a multidimensional approach.

3. Which specific topics within regional geography are frequently asked in UPSC exams, and why should aspirants prioritize them in their preparation?

Answer: Several topics within regional geography are commonly featured in UPSC exams. These include:

a. Regional Disparities: Understanding the reasons behind regional imbalances in development, economy, and infrastructure is vital. UPSC often asks questions related to strategies for reducing these disparities.

b. Natural Resources: Questions on the distribution, utilization, and sustainable management of natural resources are common. Aspirants should be well-versed in the geography of resources such as water, minerals, and forests.

c. Regional Planning: Aspirants should focus on regional planning strategies, policies, and initiatives. Questions related to the planning and development of specific regions may be asked to assess the aspirant’s awareness of government interventions.

d. Environmental Issues: Topics like climate change, deforestation, and pollution, with a regional perspective, are frequently examined. Aspirants must comprehend the geographical aspects of environmental challenges and potential solutions.

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