UPSC NCERT Notes – Modern History – Consolidation of British Power in India

The consolidation of British power in India marks a pivotal period in the country’s history, characterized by the gradual establishment of British dominance over the Indian subcontinent. This transformative era, spanning from the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century, witnessed a series of political, economic, and social changes that laid the foundation for British colonial rule in India. Through a strategic combination of military conquests, diplomatic maneuvers, and administrative reforms, the British East India Company emerged as a paramount authority, supplanting indigenous rulers and institutions. The consolidation of British power was not only a result of military conquests but also a complex interplay of economic exploitation, cultural imposition, and political manipulation. Understanding this period is crucial for comprehending the dynamics of colonialism in India and its enduring impact on the nation’s trajectory. In this exploration of UPSC NCERT notes on modern history, we delve into the intricacies of how British power became entrenched in the Indian subcontinent, shaping the course of history for generations to come.

Introduction

• Following the disintegration of the Mughal Empire, India found itself in a politically and territorially fragmented state. This created an opportunity for a new power to emerge and assert control over the region. 
• Various native dynasties and European companies engaged in intense competition, with the British gradually overcoming all rivals to establish their paramountcy.
• The swift ascent of the English East India Company was facilitated by the rapid decline of the Mughals in the 18th century. 

Before the Battle of Plassey, the East India Company had already established a robust presence in India, including a private security force numbering around 260,000—twice the size of the British army or any other Asian nation-state.

• After the decisive Battle of Plassey in 1757, the actual Nawabs of Bengal were compelled to grant land and substantial sums of money as personal gifts to company officials. Robert Clive, a key figure, amassed considerable wealth in India. This victory at Plassey marked the beginning of British mastery in Bengal and eventually paved the way for their dominance over the entire Indian subcontinent.
• The fortunes of the English East India Company continued to rise after the Battle of Buxar in 1764. Subsequently, the company began appointing residents in various Indian states, further solidifying its influence.
• This marked the initiation of company officials meddling in the affairs of Indian states’ fairs, seeking to influence the selection of successors to thrones. The company coerced princely states in India to enter subsidiary alliances, resulting in the subjugation of many Indian rulers and the erosion of their independent armed forces. This pivotal moment transformed the East India Company (EIC) into an empire within an empire.

Anglo-French Conflict

• The rivalry between the British and French extended beyond India, encompassing constant warfare in Europe and other fronts beyond Indian borders. Consequently, events occurring outside India significantly impacted the ongoing struggle between these two powers.
• Three wars unfolded between the English and French in India, collectively known as the Carnatic Wars due to the conflict’s focus on the Mughal Subah of Carnatic, which had gained a degree of independence.

In the 1720s, Saadutullah Khan, the Governor of Carnatic nominally under the Nizam of Hyderabad’s control, laid the foundation for the autonomous state of Carnatic, with Arcot as its capital.

•  Successors Dost Ali and Safdar Ali followed, but in 1743, the Nizam of Hyderabad intervened and appointed Anwar-ud-din as the Nawab of Carnatic. Chanda Sahib, aided by the French, later assassinated Anwar-ud-din in 1749.

First Carnatic War (AD 1746-1748)

• The conflict between English and French companies in India was influenced by the broader Austrian War of Succession.
• The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (AD 1748) concluded the Austrian War of Succession.

Battle of Saint Thome

• The Battle of Saint Thome occurred on the banks of the river Adyar, pitting the French East India Company against Mahfuz Khan, the commander of Anwar-ud-din (the Nawab of Carnatic). This engagement was a crucial part of the First Carnatic War.

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (AD 1748)

• The renowned Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, also known as the Treaty of Aachen, marked the conclusion of the War of the Austrian Succession and, conversely, the First Carnatic War in India. 
• The conflict spanned across Europe, pitting France, Prussia, Spain, Bavaria, and Saxony against Austria and Britain. As per the treaty terms, Madras was returned to the English in exchange for Louisburg in North America being ceded to France.

Second Carnatic War (AD 1749-1754)

• The origins of this conflict lay in the disputed succession to the thrones of Hyderabad and Carnatic. Both East India Companies supported opposing candidates for the Nawabship of Carnatic. 
• The French backed Chanda Sahib, while the English sought to install Mohammed Ali as the Nawab. In the ensuing war, the French were defeated, leading to the beheading of Chanda Sahib.
• The peace  Treaty of Pondicherry (1754) recognized Mohammed Ali as the Nawab of Carnatic. The French setback in the Second Carnatic War spelled the end for Dupleix, with Godeau replacing him as the Governor-General of French possessions in India in AD 1754.

Third Carnatic War (AD 1756-1763)

• The conclusive phase of the Anglo-French conflict commenced in AD 1756, coinciding with the outbreak of the Seven Years’ War in Europe.
• Under the leadership of Count-de-Lally, the French army, serving as the Governor-General, captured Fort Saint David in AD 1758.

Following a series of conflicts, the English forces, led by General Eyre Coote, decisively defeated the French at Wandiwash, a fort in the Carnatic state, on January 22, 1760, in what is now known as the Battle of Wandiwash.

• The English seized Pondicherry and other French settlements, including Mahe and Jinji, during the Seven Years’ War. The conflict concluded with the cessation of hostilities in Europe. 
• The Treaty of Paris in AD 1763 marked the end of the Seven Years’ War, returning Pondicherry and several French territories to France.

Seven Years’ War

• Initiating in 1756 and concluding in AD 1763, the Seven Years’ War erupted between the British and the French, primarily over power struggles in North America. Numerous other European nations participated in the conflict. The war concluded with the Treaty of Paris involving France, Spain, and Great Britain, as well as the Treaty of Hubertusburg involving Saxony, Austria, and Prussia.

Anglo-Mysore Conflict

• Mysore was once a part of the Vijayanagara Empire, but after the empire’s decline in AD 1565, the Wodeyar dynasty established its rule. 
• The process of the Wodeyar ruler Chikka Krishnaraja I losing royal authority began in AD 1731-34 when two brothers, Devaraja and Nanaraja, effectively controlled the state.

First Anglo-Mysore War (AD 1767-1769)

• The ascent of Haider Ali posed a threat to British influence in India. Haider Ali, driven by the ambition to expel the British from the Carnatic and eventually from India, prompted the British to form alliances with the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas in opposition. 

Haider Ali, skillfully employing diplomacy, secured support from the Marathas, enticed the Nizam with territorial gains, and together with the Nizam, launched an attack on the British. In the ensuing war, Haider Ali achieved brilliant victories over the British and ultimately besieged Madras.

• In a state of panic, the Madras Government was compelled to sign the humiliating Treaty of Madras on April 4, 1767. 
• The terms of the treaty stipulated the mutual restitution of each other’s territories, except Karur and its district, which were to be retained by the ruler of Mysore.
• Haider Ali agreed to release all the captured employees of the Madras Government, and the Raja of Tanjore was to be treated as a friend and ally by Haider.
• Additionally, the trade privileges of the Bombay Presidency and English factories were to be reinstated.

Second Anglo-Mysore War (AD 1780-1784)

• The Second Anglo-Mysore War arose from mutual distrust and the English’s refusal to honor the terms of the defensive treaty with Haider when he was attacked by the Marathas in 1771. Haider, finding the French more supportive in meeting his military needs for gunpowder, saltpetre, and lead, established a close alliance with them. 

The outbreak of the American War of Independence and the French alliance with the American colonists raised suspicions in Warren Hastings regarding Haider Ali’s relationship with the French.

• In this context, the English attempt to capture Mahe, a French port on the Malabar coast, considered by Haider to be under its protection, posed a direct challenge. 
• Consequently, Haider formed a joint front with the Nizam and the Marathas in July 1780, attacking the Carnatic and capturing Areot, defeating an English army under Colonel Baillie.
• Subsequently, the English managed to detach the Marathas and Nizam from Haider’s side in November AD 1781, leading to Haider’s defeat by Sir Eyre Coote at Porto Novo.
• In the following year, while the war was ongoing, Haider Ali inflicted a humiliating defeat on the English army under Colonel Braithwaite before his demise.

Third Anglo-Mysore War (AD 1789-1792)

• The increasing power of Mysore and Tipu’s successful internal reforms raised concerns among the British, Marathas, and Nizam. 

Lord Cornwallis capitalized on the anti-Tipu sentiments of the Nizam and the Marathas, forming a Triple Alliance with them in AD 1790.

• Anticipating a potential conflict with the English, Tipu sought assistance from the Turks by dispatching embassies to Constantinople in AD 1784 and again in AD 1785, as well as reaching out to the French king in AD 1787.
• Simultaneously, disputes arose between Tipu and the Raja of Travancore when the latter purchased Jai Kottai and Cranganore from the Dutch in the Cochin state. Considering Cochin as his tributary state, Tipu viewed the Raja’s actions as a violation of his sovereign rights, leading to an attack on Travancore in April 1790.
• Seizing the opportunity, the English sided with the Raja of Travancore, declaring war against Tipu. Despite Tipu’s initial victory over Major General Medows in AD 1790, Cornwallis assumed command of the English army.
• Cornwallis, supported by Marathas and Nizam’s troops, approached Srirangapatnam. While Tipu put up fierce resistance, the impracticality of prolonged conflict led to the signing of the Treaty of Srirangapatnam in March 1792.

Treaty of Srirangapatnam

• This treaty resulted in the surrender of nearly half of Mysorean territory to the victorious allies (British, Marathas, and Nizam). Tipu agreed to cede half of his territories, which would be shared among the three allies.
• Additionally, Tipu was obligated to make an immediate payment of 1.6 crore out of the total indemnity agreed upon (3.6 crore), with the remainder (2 crore) to be paid in three installments. Tipu also committed to releasing all prisoners of war, while two of his sons were to be held as hostages until the terms were fulfilled.

Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (AD 1798-1799)

• To garner French support against the English in India, Tipu aligned himself with the Jacobin Club and symbolically planted a Tree of Liberty at Srirangapatnam. He dispatched diplomatic missions to Zaman Shah of Afghanistan, embassies in Constantinople, the Directory at Versailles, and the French in Isle de France (Mauritius). Mauritius, originally seized by France in AD 1715, was later renamed Isle de France.
• Recognizing Tipu’s hostile intentions, Lord Wellesley, the new Governor-General of India, was resolute in eliminating this perceived threat once and for all. 
• The war against Tipu commenced in AD 1799, resulting in his defeat first by Stuart at Sedaseer on March 5th and subsequently by General Harris at Malvelley on March 27th.
• On May 4th, 1799, the English captured Srirangapatnam, and Tipu perished while defending his capital.

Anglo-Maratha Conflict

• The significant expansion of the company’s cotton trade to China from Gujarat through Bombay after AD 1784 spurred British authorities to adopt a more interventionist role in the Deccan region. This ambition brought them into direct conflict with Maratha power.

First Anglo-Maratha War (AD 1775-1782)

• The war, initiated with the Treaty of Surat in AD 1775, concluded with the Treaty of Salbai in AD 1782. The company’s political ambition to extend influence into Maratha territory, coupled with internal conflicts among Maratha leaders, played a crucial role in this conflict.

Second Anglo-Maratha War (AD 1803-1805)

• Wellesley, arriving in India as the Governor-General of Bengal in AD 1798, believed that establishing robust military control over Indian princes was the only viable way to safeguard India against the French threat.

In this context, he pursued an assertive policy in the internal affairs of the Marathas, aiming to impose a subsidiary alliance that involved British interference. While the Peshwa accepted the British subsidiary alliance, other Maratha chiefs expressed resentment, viewing the treaty as humiliating and a threat to their independent political existence.

• Consequently, a war erupted between the internal Maratha chiefs, and Holkar’s attack on Peshwa Baji Rao II led to the signing of the subsidiary treaty at Bassein in AD 1802 between the Peshwa and the British.

On December 17, 1803, Bhonsle signed the Treaty of Deogaon, and Scindia signed the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon on December 30, 1803.

•  In AD 1804, Yashwant Rao Holkar attempted to form a coalition of Indian rulers against the British, but his efforts proved unsuccessful.
• After facing defeat, he was compelled to sign the Treaty of Rajpurghat with Sir George Barlow on December 25, 1805. Ultimately, the war resulted in the establishment of British influence over the Maratha Empire.

Battle of Laswari

• As part of the Second Anglo-Maratha War, the Battle of Laswari occurred on November 1, 1803. General Lake led the British forces against the Maratha army led by Scindia, resulting in a British victory.
• Following this battle, Raghuji Bhonsale II of Nagpur signed the Treaty of Deogaon with the British, granting them the province of Cuttack with Balasore.

Battle of Assaye

• The Battle of Assaye, a crucial engagement in the Second Anglo-Maratha War, transpired at Assaye, a village in modern Maharashtra, on September 23, 1803. 
• Major-General Arthur Wellesley led the British forces against a combined army of Daulat Scindia and the Raja of Berar.

Third Anglo-Maratha War (AD 1817-1818)

• The final phase of the struggle commenced with Lord Hastings assuming the role of Governor-General in AD 1813. Resuming the aggressive policy of Wellesley, Lord Hastings was determined to establish British paramountcy in India.
• The Maratha Confederacy was dissolved, leading to the dethronement of the Peshwa, Baji Rao II, who was pensioned off at Bithur near Kanpur.
• A subsidiary treaty known as the Treaty of Mandsaur was signed with Holkar.
• To address Maratha pride, Pratap Singh, a descendant of Shivaji, was appointed the ruler of a small kingdom of Satara, established from the Peshwa’s lands.

Pindaris:

• Pindaris were irregular horsemen originating from defeated armies who engaged in robbery and plunder of Maratha armies in 18th-century Central India.
• Following the fall of the Mughal Empire, these camp followers organized into groups, often led by prominent Maratha chiefs.
• In 1816, under the supreme command of Lord Hastings, the British conducted a campaign known as the Pindari War, resulting in the extermination of the Pindaris.
• Protectors of the Pindaris in Gwalior were coerced into signing a treaty against the Pindaris in 1817. Other allies who took up arms against the British were defeated separately.

Anglo-Sikh Conflict:

• After the defeat of Bengal, Mysore, and the Marathas, the only major Indian power retaining independence was Punjab under Ranjit Singh, who ascended to power in AD 1792.
• Singh organized an alliance of Sikh Misls west of the Sutlej in AD 1798, successfully repelling an invasion by the Afghan ruler Zaman Shah. This triumph solidified his rule, and in AD 1801, the Misls accepted him as the Maharaja of Punjab.
• Ranjit Singh swiftly expanded his dominion to include extensive territories such as Peshawar, Multan, Kashmir, Kangra, and other hill states. However, Ranjit Singh’s demise brought about political instability in the Sikh Empire. 

A succession of weak successors, including Kharak Singh, Nao Nihal Singh, Sher Singh, and Dalip Singh, marked a period that ultimately led to the downfall of the Sikh Empire.

• During this time, the Sikh elements in the army, known as Khalsa, rose to prominence and began meddling in the state’s affairs.
• Internal group rivalries within the Khalsa turned them into kingmakers, providing the British an opportunity to intervene in Punjab’s affairs and establish control over the region.
• This strategic move was deemed essential for extending the British Empire in India to its natural frontiers in the North-West.

First Anglo-Sikh War (AD 1845-1846)

• Under Dalip Singh’s reign, the First Anglo-Sikh War unfolded, with the English invading Punjab, occupying Lahore, and imposing the Treaty of Lahore on March 9, 1846. The terms of the treaty included:
  • Sikhs renouncing all claims to territories south of the river Sutlej.
  • Imposing a war indemnity of 1.5 crores on the Lahore Durbar.
  • Limiting the Sikh army to 20,000 infantry and 12,000 cavalry.
  • Assigning a British resident to be stationed at Lahore.
• As the Lahore Durbar struggled to meet the war indemnity, it agreed to transfer the hill countries between the rivers Beas and Indus, including the province of Kashmir, to the British East India Company. Gulab Singh, instrumental in these negotiations, was granted Kashmir by the company.

Second Anglo-Sikh War (AD 1848-1849)

• Feeling humiliated by the settlement of Punjab after the First Sikh War, the Sikhs resented the English resident’s interference in Punjab’s internal affairs. Simultaneously, the British were eager to solidify their control over Punjab.
• Under the governance of Dalhousie, the new Governor-General, whose imperialistic tendencies were pronounced, the annexation of Punjab found a pretext in the Rebellion of Mulraj (AD 1848), the Governor of Multan, against the East India Company.
• In response, English forces initiated an attack on Punjab in AD 1848, resulting in a decisive defeat for the Sikhs. Consequently, Punjab was annexed into the British dominion in March 1849. Raja Dalip Singh, the minor son of Ranjit Singh, and his mother, Rani Jindan, serving as his regent, were sent to London on fixed annual pensions.

Annexation of Sindh

• Since the 18th century, Sindh had been under the rule of Baluchi chiefs collectively known as the Amirs of Sindh. 
• As early as 1775, the East India Company had attempted to establish a factory in the strategic ports of Sindh but abandoned the effort in AD 1792.
• In AD 1809, during Lord Minto’s tenure, an embassy was dispatched to the Amirs, leading to the Treaty of Eternal Friendship in the same year. 
• By aligning with the English, the Amirs ceased allowing French access to the ports of Sindh. The British successfully renewed this treaty in 1820.
• Major General Charles James Napier, commanding the army of the Bombay Presidency, played a significant role during this period.
• With Lord Auckland recalled and Lord Ellenborough, known for his affinity for military pomp, tasked with addressing Muslim insurrections, the loosely governed Sindh faced repeated Sikh invasions in the past.
• The Battles of Miani and Dobo in AD 1843, under Charles Napier’s command, saw 3000 British troops triumph over 12,000 Baluchis. 
• Subsequently, the Amirs of Sindh and their relatives were taken as prisoners and, in their despondent state, were exiled to Burma. The entire region of Sindh was annexed into the British Empire in AD 1843.

Different Policies of British Rule

Various policies implemented during British rule are outlined below:

Policy of Ring Fence (1765-1813)

• The Ring-Fence policy, enacted by Warren Hastings, aimed to defend neighboring frontiers to protect the British territories. The primary threats were perceived from the Marathas and Afghan invaders. 
• Under this policy, the East India Company would dispatch troops to fortify the defenses of its allies, and the cost of maintaining these troops would be borne by the rulers of the respective states. Consequently, the local ruler’s defense became contingent on the East India Company’s support.

Wellesley’s Subsidiary Alliance Policy, an extension of the Ring Fence policy, sought to diminish states’ dependence on the British Government in India.

Policy of Subordinate Isolation (1813-1857)

• During this period, the imperial concept evolved, giving rise to the theory of paramountcy. Indian states were expected to collaborate subordinately with the British government, recognizing its supremacy. 
• States relinquished external sovereignty while retaining control over internal administration. British residents transitioned from diplomatic agents to executive and commanding officers of a superior government. 

The Charter Act of 1833 marked the end of the Company’s commercial functions while preserving its political roles. This policy required prior approval for all matters related to succession.

• In 1834, the Board of Directors issued guidelines advocating the annexation of states whenever possible. 
• Lord Dalhousie’s annexation policy led to the usurpation of eight states, including significant ones like Satara and Nagpur.

Policy of Subordinate Union (1858-1935)

• Between 1858 and 1935, the British Government adopted a policy of subordinate union towards Indian princely states.
• The Act of 1858 shifted powers to the crown, considering the authority of princes over their territories not as a right but as a gift from the paramount power. From 1905 onward, the government adopted a policy of cordial cooperation towards Indian states.

Policy of Equal Federation (1935-1947)

• In its proposal for an All India Federation, the Government of India Act of 1935 suggested a Federal Assembly with 125 out of 375 seats reserved for princes and the Council of States with 104 out of 160 seats designated for princes.
• This proposal required ratification by states representing more than half of the population and entitled to more than half of the seats in the Council of States. However, this scheme was never realized and was abandoned with the outbreak of World War II in September 1939.

Conflict with the Neighboring States

Anglo-Nepal Relations

• In 1792, Colonel Kilpatrick undertook a commercial mission to Kathmandu, and Captain Knox served as the British resident in Kathmandu from 1802 to 1804.

Anglo-Nepal War (1814-1816)

• The primary cause of the war was the frequent raids by the Gorkhas in British territory. In May 1814, the Gorkhas attacked three police stations in Butwal, leading Lord Hastings to declare war against them.
• General Gardener secured Almora, while General Ochterlony defeated the Gorkha leader Amar Singh Thapa, forcing him to surrender the fort of Malaun. 
• The Treaty of Sugauli (1815) was signed, but the Gorkhas did not ratify it. 

This resulted in a second campaign in 1816, where General Ochterlony defeated the Gorkhas at the Battle of Makwanpur. The Gorkhas accepted the Treaty of Sagauli (1816), and the English acquired hill stations like Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital, Almora, Ranikhet, etc.

Anglo-Burmese Wars

• The English ambition to exploit Burma commercially by acquiring political power led to conflicts with the Burmese kingdom.

First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1826)

• Lord Amherst initiated a war against Burma, resulting in the defeat and death of Burmese General Maha Bandula in the Battle of Donaben. 
• The Treaty of Yandaboo (1826) was signed, stationing a British resident at the Burmese capital.

Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852-1853)

• The conflict arose due to the oppression of English merchants in Burma by Burmese officials in Rangoon. Lord Dalhousie declared a second war against Burma, leading to the annexation of Martaban, Rangoon, Prome, and Pegu.

Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885)

• Burma’s King Thibaw granted trade concessions to the French, imposed fines on the English company, and arrested its officials.
• Following Lord Dufferin’s command, the English army marched on Burma, occupying the capital city of Mandalay. 
• The Burmese king was imprisoned, and Burma became part of the British Empire. 

In 1935, Burma was separated from India, and it gained independence on January 4, 1948, under the leadership of Aung San.

Anglo-Afghan Wars

• The English ambition to create a buffer zone between the English empire and the advancing Russian Empire led them to Afghanistan in pursuit of political influence.

First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842)

• Dost Mohammad sought English help to regain Peshawar from Ranjit Singh, but Lord Auckland rejected his proposal. Dost Mohammad then embraced the friendship of the French. Auckland sent an English mission under Alexander Burns, which was rejected by the Afghan Chief. Auckland violated the Treaty of 1832 by crossing territories of Sind, occupying Kandahar, Ghazni, and Kabul.
• Shah Shuja, not accepted as chief by the Afghanis, was killed in 1842. A rebellion ensued, resulting in the killing of Englishmen Burns, Charles, Sir William, and Elphinstone. Faced with this, the English were compelled to sign a humiliating treaty and acknowledge Dost Mohammad as the Amir of Afghanistan.

Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880)

• Sher Ali, the Afghan Chief, rejected English missions led by Sir Lewis Pelly and Sir Neville Chamberlain but accepted the Russian mission led by Stolietoff. 
• The English attacked from three sides – Khyber pass, Kurram pass, and Bolan pass. Sher Ali was defeated and later died. Yakub Khan signed the Treaty of Gandamak (1879), placing a British resident at Kabul and ceding the districts of Kurram, Pisin, and Sibi to the English.
• However, Major Cavagari, the British resident, was soon murdered, leading to a restart of the war. General Roberts occupied Kabul, and Abdur Rehman became the new Amir of Afghanistan.

Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919)

• In 1919, Habibullah, the Amir of Afghanistan, was assassinated, and his son Amanullah attempted to declare independence from British regency. Invading British territories on the advice of a German agent, Amanullah was defeated.

Treaty of Rawalpindi

• Signed on 8th August 1919 in Rawalpindi by the British and the Emirate of Afghanistan, this treaty allowed Amirs to pursue their policy within their territory, and their annual subsidy was terminated.

Anglo-Tibet Relations

• Tibet, an autonomous state beyond the Himalayas, was always under the control of Buddhist rulers, also their spiritual leaders. Warren Hastings sent the first commercial mission under George Bogle to meet the Dalai Lama in 1774-75.
• In 1887, Tibetans invaded Sikkim but were repulsed. Subsequently, the boundary between India and Tibet was settled in 1890.

In 1905, Lord Curzon sent a mission led by Colonel Young Husband. When Tibetans refused to meet him, the British army compelled them to sign a treaty.

• The Dalai Lama signed the Lhasa Treaty on 7th September 1904, granting the British control over established trade centers.

British Expansion Policy

• The British expansion policies in India included the Subsidiary Alliance, the Policy of Paramountcy, and the Doctrine of Lapse.

Subsidiary Alliance System

• Lord Wellesley, Governor-General from 1798 to 1805, adopted the subsidiary alliance system to expand British dominion in India.

Features of the Subsidiary Alliance

• Under this arrangement, the Indian emperor was prohibited from hiring any European without British approval. Negotiations with other Indian leaders required prior approval from the Governor-General. In return, the British would defend the ruler against enemies and refrain from interfering in the internal affairs of allied states.
• Subsidiary alliances benefited the East India Company by expanding British control and maintaining relative peace through subsidies and/or territorial agreements.

States that Accepted the Subsidiary Alliance System

• Hyderabad (1798)
• Mysore (1799, after the defeat of Tipu Sultan in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War)
• Tanjore (1799)
• Awadh (1801)
• Peshwa (Marathas) (1802)
• Scindia (Marathas) (1803)
• Gaekwad (Marathas) (1803)

Policy of Paramountcy

• During Lord Hastings’ tenure as Governor-General from 1813 to 1823, a new policy of Paramountcy was instituted. According to this policy, the East India Company asserted its supreme authority, claiming the right to annex or threaten the annexation of any Indian kingdom. Subsequent British policies were influenced by this perspective.
• Between 1838 and 1842, a prolonged war was fought with Afghanistan, leading to the establishment of indirect Company rule in the region. Sind had already been taken over, and Punjab was annexed in 1849.

Doctrine of Lapse

• Under the governance of Lord Dalhousie from 1848 to 1856, the Doctrine of Lapse policy was introduced.

According to this doctrine, if an Indian ruler passed away without a male heir, his kingdom would lapse and become part of Company territory.

• This policy resulted in the direct annexation of several kingdoms, including Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852), Nagpur (1853), and Jhansi (1854).

Consequences of the Implementation of the Doctrine of Lapse

• As a result of the Doctrine of Lapse, numerous Indian princely states lost their lands to the British East India Company when rulers lacked biological heirs to the throne. The policy led to discontent among Indian princes and played a role in the events leading up to the Revolt of 1857.
• Nana Sahib and the Rani of Jhansi faced issues due to restricted pensions for heirs and disrespectful treatment. The policy even prevented the adoptive son of the Rani of Jhansi from succeeding to the throne. Following Lord Dalhousie’s departure for Britain in 1856, the revolt of 1857 ensued, leading to severe criticism of Lord Dalhousie’s leadership.

Prelims FActs

• Which war began the consolidation of British Supremacy over India? Battle of Plassey IMPPSC (Pre) 1994)
• Siraj-ud-Daula was defeated by Lord Clive in the battle of -Plassey (UPPSC (Mains) 2005)
• Which Governor of India has been called as a ‘Heaven Born General’? -Robert Clive (UPPSC (Mains) 2009)
• Who founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal in Calcutta in 1784 William Jones (UPPSC (Mains) 2017
• The most decisive battle that led to the establishment of supremacy of the British in India was -Battle of Buxar [UPPSC (Pre) 2003]
• Who was the Nawab of Bengal when the battle of Buxar was fought? -Mir Qasim (UPPSC (Mains) 2016]
• Who granted the Diwani of Bengal to the East India Company in 1765? -Shah Alam II [UPPSC (Pre) 2010]
• Where was the Western Presidency situated in the early period of the East India Company? -Surat (MPPSC (Pre) 2018]
• Who was appointed Deputy Diwan of Murshidabad by Robert Clive after the Allahabad Treaty? -Mohd. Raza Khan (BPSC (Pre) 2001]
• The famous battle of Wandiwash in 1760 was fought by the British against whom? -The French (BPSC (Pre) 2020]
• Name the French commander who was defeated in the Battle of Wandiwash in 1760. -Count Lally (UKPSC (Pre) 2016
• What was the capital of Kingdom of Maharaja Ranjit Singh? Lahore (UKPSC (Pre) 1995, 2006
• At which place did Raja Ranjit Singh set up the Adalat-j Ala ? -Lahore (UPPSC (Pre) 2021)
• Who said ‘God intended me to look upon all religions with one eye, that is why he took away the light from the other? -Maharaja Ranjit Singh (UPPSC (Mains) 2017
• Who emerged victorious in the first Anglo-Mysore War (1766-69)? -Haider Ali [UP Lower 2010
• Who established a modern armory in Dindigal Mysore in 1755? – Haider Ali (UPPSC (Pre) 2020)
• Which British General defeated Haider Ali in the war of Porto Novo? Sir Eyer Coote [JPSC (Pre) 2003)
• Where did Begum Samru constructed the most eminent Church?  -Sardhana (UPPSC (Mains) 2012
• Which mountain tribe did the Britisher first came into contact with after the grant of Diwani in year 1765? Khasi (IAS (Pre) 2002
• Who was the first Indian Native ruler to accept the H Subsidiary Treaty System? – Nizam of Hyderabad [MPPSC (Pre) 2009)
• Who established himself as an independent ruler in Hyderabad and gave the title of Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah? Chin Qilich Khan [UPPSC (Pre) 2021
• Which Indian ruler established embassies in foreign countries on modern lines ? -Tipu Sultan [IAS (Pre) 2001, UPPSC (Pre) 2011)
• Who is considered as the ‘Father of Dyarchy’? Sir Lionel Curtis [BPSC (Pre) 2017

UPSC NCERT Practice Questions

1. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below.  UPPSC (Pre) 2016

List I	List II
A. First Carnatic War	1. End with the Treaty of Paris
B. Second Carnatic War	2. Inconclusive War
C. Third Carnatic War	3. British Defeat
D. First Mysore War	4. End with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapella

Codes

     A   B   C   D                             A   B   C   D

(a) 1   3   4    2                        (b) 2   4    1    3 

(c) 4   3    1   2                        (d) 3   1    4    2

2. With reference to the Treaty of ‘Aix-la-Chapelle 1748’, Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct? UPPSC (Pre) 2020

1. The first Carnatic War was ended.

2. The English got back Madras.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

(a) Only 1

(c) Both 1 and 2

(b) Only 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

3. Who emerged victorious in the first Anglo-Mysore War (1766-69)? UPPSC (Mains) 2015

(a) English

(b) Haider Ali

(c) Maratha

(d) Nizam of Hyderabad

4. Which one of the following characteristics of the Treaty of Allahabad is/are correct?

1. The treaty was concluded by Robert Clive and Shuja-ud-Daula.

2 The EIC acquired Diwani of Bengal and Bihar.

3. The treaty was signed after the conclusion of Battle of Buxar.

4. The native combined forces were defeated by Hector Munro of the company.

Codes

(a) Only 1

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 3 and 4

(d) 1, 2 and 3

5. Which one of the following is not correctly matched?

(a) First War of Carnatic                    –                1746-48

(b) Second War of Carnatic               –                1750-52

(c) Third Battle of Carnatic                –                1758-63

(d) Third Battle of Panipat                 –                1761

6. Englishmen made the Treaty of Seringapatam with

(a) Hyder Ali

(b) Dupleix

(c) Tipu Sultan

(d) Nandraj

7. As per the Treaty of Srirangapatnam, which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?

1. Half of the Mysorean territory was given to the British Allies.

2. Tipu was make to immediate payment of 1.6 crore as war indemnity. 

3. The treaty was outcome after Second Anglo-Mysore War.

4. Tipu Sultan initialy defeated Major-General Medows in 1790.

Codes

(a) Only 4

(b) 3 and 4

(c) 2 and 3

(d) All of these

8. Match List I with List II and answer using the codes given below. 

List I	List II
A. First Anglo-Maratha War	1. 1775-1782
B. Second Anglo-Maratha War	2. 1803-1805
C. First Anglo-Sikh War	3. 1814-1816
D. Anglo-Nepal War	4. 1845-1846

Codes

     A   B   C   D                             A   B   C   D

(a) 1   2   3    4                        (b) 1   2    4    3 

(c) 1   3    2   4                        (d) 1   3    4    2

9. Which of the following is correctly matched? 

States                                              Rulers

(a) First Anglo-Mysore War              Hyder Ali was defeated

(b) Second Anglo-Mysore War         Hyder Ali defeated the British

(c) Third Anglo-Mysore War             Tipu Sultan won the battle and did not cede his territory to British.                                                          

(d) Fourth Anglo-Mysore War           Tipu was defeated and was killed in the thick of battle.

10. Which of the following statements are correct about the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War?

1. The Madras Council suggested a policy of harsh and rapid attack on Mysore.

2. Lord Wellesley tried to revive the Trinational Treaty. 

3. Tipu sent envoys to Arabia, Versailles, Mauritius and Kabul to get help against the British. 

4. The War was of short duration, but was decisive.

Codes

(a) 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4 (c) 2 and 4 (d) 1 and 3

Know Right Answer

1. (c)

2. (c)

3. (b)

4. (c)

5. (b)

6. (c)

7. (d)

8. (b)

9. (d)

10. (a)

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1: What is the significance of the Battle of Plassey in the consolidation of British power in India?

A1: The Battle of Plassey, fought in 1757, was a pivotal event in the consolidation of British power in India. It marked the beginning of British control over Bengal and laid the foundation for their subsequent dominance. The victory at Plassey allowed the British East India Company to establish economic and political control, leading to the gradual expansion of British influence in other parts of India.

Q2: How did the Doctrine of Lapse contribute to the consolidation of British power in India?

A2: The Doctrine of Lapse, introduced by Lord Dalhousie in the mid-19th century, played a significant role in the consolidation of British power. According to this policy, if a ruler of an Indian state died without a natural heir, the territory would be annexed by the East India Company. This led to the annexation of several princely states, such as Satara, Jhansi, and Nagpur, strengthening British control and expanding their territorial influence.

Q3: What role did economic policies play in the consolidation of British power during the colonial period?

A3: Economic policies were crucial in the consolidation of British power in colonial India. The British East India Company implemented exploitative economic measures, including the Permanent Settlement of 1793, which fixed land revenue permanently and benefited the Company at the expense of Indian peasants. The introduction of cash crops and industrialization further strengthened British economic control, contributing to the overall consolidation of power.

Q4: How did the Indian Rebellion of 1857 impact the consolidation of British power?

A4: The Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny, posed a major challenge to British rule. While the rebellion was eventually suppressed by the British, it had profound consequences. The British Crown took over control from the East India Company, marking the end of its rule. The events of 1857 led to a more direct and centralized British administration in India, contributing to the consolidation of their power.

Q5: In what ways did social and cultural factors contribute to the consolidation of British power in India?

A5: Social and cultural factors played a role in the consolidation of British power in India. The British implemented policies that aimed to divide and rule by exploiting existing religious and cultural differences among Indians. The promotion of Western education and the English language also contributed to a class of anglicized Indians who became intermediaries between the British and the local population, further solidifying British influence.

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