UPSC NCERT Notes - Modern History

The Later Mughal period in Indian history stands as a pivotal era marked by both the decline of Mughal power and the rise of regional powers. Spanning from the late 17th to the mid-18th century, this epoch witnessed a significant shift in the political landscape of the Indian subcontinent. The dynasty’s earlier grandeur and centralized authority gave way to fragmentation and decentralization, with regional governors and princes asserting their autonomy. Amidst this backdrop of political turmoil, cultural efflorescence, economic transformations, and social changes unfolded, leaving a profound impact on the trajectory of Indian history. In this context, delving into the nuances of the Later Mughals becomes imperative for understanding the complexities of pre-colonial India and the dynamics that paved the way for subsequent historical developments.

Table of Contents

Introduction:

The demise of Aurangzeb in AD 1707 marked the swift decline of the Mughal Empire. Subsequently, the Mughal court became a battleground for internal strife among the nobles, leading to the emergence of independent actions by provincial Governors.
The period following Aurangzeb’s death saw a succession of Mughal Emperors known as the Later Mughals. In the power struggle that ensued among Aurangzeb’s three sons, the 65-year-old Bahadur Shah I emerged victorious and ascended the throne.

Later Mughals:

Bahadur Shah I (AD 1707-1712)
Jahandar Shah (AD 1712-1713)
Farrukhsiyar (AD 1713-1719)
Muhammad Shah (AD 1719-1748)
Ahmad Shah (AD 1748-1754)
Alamgir II (AD 1754-1759)
Shah Alam II (AD 1759-1806)
Akbar II (AD 1806-1837)
Bahadur Shah II (AD 1837-1857)

Bahadur Shah I (AD 1707-1712)

In his brief reign, Bahadur Shah I aimed to mend relations within the Mughal Empire by fostering harmony with the Marathas and the Rajputs. He engaged in significant military endeavors, including defeating Kam Baksh in the Battle of Jajau in AD 1707 and releasing Sahu, the son of Sambhaji. Moreover, he acknowledged the independence of Mewar and Marwar.

Despite his conciliatory efforts, Bahadur Shah I faced criticism from Khafi Khan, who dubbed him Shah-i-Bekhabar, highlighting his inclination to appease various parties through the grant of titles and rewards.

Notably, he established peace with Guru Gobind Singh and Raja Chhatrasal, granting the Marathas the right to collect Sardeshmukhi in the Deccan, excluding Chauth. His campaign against Sikh warrior Banda Bahadur proved unsuccessful, leading to his demise during the conflict. Consequently, Banda Bahadur established the first Sikh capital at Lohgarh Fort.
Bahadur Shah I’s death in AD 1712 triggered a succession war among his four sons—Jahandar Shah, Azim-us-Shah, Rafi-us-Shah, and Jahan Shah.

Jahandar Shah (AD 1712-1713)

Jahandar Shah ascended to the throne after subduing his three brothers with the assistance of Zulfikar Khan, marking the onset of a trend where nobles played crucial roles as kingmakers. Zulfikar Khan assumed the role of the de facto ruler.
During his rule, Jahandar Shah was significantly influenced by his mistress, Lal Kunwar, known for emulating the style of Nur Jahan.
He bestowed titles such as Mirza Raja upon Jai Singh of Malwa and Maharaja upon Ajit Singh of Marwar.
While he granted the Marathas the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi in the Deccan, the collection was orchestrated by Mughal officers before being handed over to Maratha officials.

He promoted Ijara, also known as revenue farming or contract farming, and abolished several practices. Farrukhsiyar, the first Mughal Emperor to be killed in captivity, met his demise at the hands of the two Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali.

Farrukhsiyar (AD 1713-1719)

As the nephew of Jahandar Shah I and the son of Azim-us-Shah, also known as Sahid-i-Mazion, Farrukhsiyar made strategic appointments during his reign. He named Abdulla Khan as Wazir and Hussain Ali as Mir Bakshi. Additionally, he assigned Chin Qulich Khan to oversee the provincial administration of Deccan.
Later, Chin Qulich Khan established the independent state of Hyderabad in October 1724. Raja Jai Singh Sawai of Amber was commissioned to lead an expedition against the Jats, resulting in the capture and execution of Sikh leader Banda Bahadur at Delhi on June 19, 1716.
Farrukhsiyar’s attempt to eliminate the rising influence of the Sayyid brothers backfired. The Sayyid brothers deposed and executed the emperor in a gruesome manner in April 1719. Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath sought the right to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi on Maratha land during his visit to the emperor’s court.

The downfall of the Sayyid Brothers

The Sayyid brothers’ efforts to salvage the empire from administrative disintegration faltered due to persistent political rivalry among the nobility.
Factions within the nobility, backed by Emperor Muhammad Shah, led to the assassination of Husain Ali Khan in 1720.
The elder brother, Abdullah Khan, was defeated near Agra. These two brothers are remembered in Indian history as the King-makers.

Muhammad Shah (AD 1719-1748)

The grandson of Bahadur Shah, Muhammad Shah, was initially influenced by the Sayyid brothers, Queen Qudsiya Begum (Udham Bai), and foster sister Koki Jiu during the early years of his reign.

With the assistance of Chin Qulich Khan, he eliminated the Sayyid brothers in AD 1720, earning him the moniker “Rangeela” due to his penchant for pleasure.

In March 1737, the Marathas, led by Baji Rao I, raided the surroundings of Delhi for the first time. In AD 1739, Nadir Shah of Persia, often likened to the Napoleon of Iran, invaded India with the support of Sadat Khan and defeated the Mughal Army in the Battle of Karnal. He seized the Peacock Throne of Shah Jahan and the Kohinoor diamond from Delhi.
Amidst the turmoil, Sadat Ali Khan (Governor of Awadh), Murshid Kull Khan (Governor of Bengal), and the Rohillas in the Ganges valley declared their independence.

Ahmad Shah (AD 1748-1754)

Succeeding his father Muhammad Shah in 1748 at the age of 22, Ahmad Shah Bahadur, also known as Mirza Ahmad Shah or Mujahid-ud-Din Shah Ghazi, ruled during a tumultuous period.

His reign witnessed the first invasion of Ahmad Shah Abdali, the ruler of Afghanistan and former General of Nadir Shah. Abdali attacked India five times between AD 1748 and 1767, culminating in the Third Battle of Panipat.

Blinded by his Wazir Ghulam Qadir, Ahmad Shah was deposed, and Alamgir II (also known as Aziz-ud-din) was raised to the throne.

Alamgir II (AD 1754-1759)

Following the deposition of Ahmad Shah, Imad-ul-Mulk elevated Alamgir II as the emperor of the Mughal Empire. Known as Aziz-ud-din, his reign included the pivotal Battle of Plassey in 1757. Imad-ul-Mulk later orchestrated the killing of Alamgir II in AD 1759, placing Shah Jahan II on the throne, a position soon assumed by Shah Alam II.

Shah Alam II (AD 1759-1806)

Also known as Ali Gauhar, he faced defeat in the Battle of Buxar in AD 1764, while the significant Third Battle of Panipat unfolded in 1761.
In AD 1772, Mahaji Scindia assisted the emperor in reclaiming the throne. Subsequently, in AD 1803, the English, commanded by Lord Lake, captured Delhi from Maratha control.
As per the Allahabad Treaty of 1765, Shah Alam II granted the Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the British post the Battle of Buxar. Shah Alam II became the first Mughal Emperor to receive a pension from the East India Company and passed away in AD 1806.

The Battle of Buxar on October 22, 1764, witnessed the British forces, led by Major Hector Munro, defeating the allies Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh, and Shah Alam II

Akbar II (AD 1806-1837)

Regarded as the first Mughal Emperor ruling India under British dominion, Akbar II faced pressure from Lord Hastings to relinquish all ceremonial power and titles proclaimed by the Mughal Emperor.
The circulation of Mughal coins ceased in 1835. Akbar II conferred the title of Raja on Ram Mohan Roy and requested him to travel to England to advocate for an increase in the emperor’s pension.

Bahadur Shah II (AD 1837-1857)

As the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah II held a titular position during that period. He actively participated in the 1857 Revolt. Following the revolt, the British tried and executed him, and he was exiled to Rangoon in Burma.
Bahadur Shah II was handed over to Major William Hudson of the British East India Company’s army on September 21, 1857. His demise occurred in AD 1862 in Rangoon.
Known by his pet name Zafar, he was not only a Mughal Emperor but also a prominent Urdu poet. Bahadur Shah II played a significant role in promoting literary talent, as seen in his patronage of Mirza Ghalib, to whom he granted the Jagir of Loharu.

Causes for the Decline of the Mughal Empire

Several factors contributed to the decline of the Mughal Empire in India:

Wars over Succession

The absence of clear laws regarding royal succession led to recurring conflicts among brothers vying for the throne after a ruler’s demise. This pattern intensified after Aurangzeb’s reign, weakening the Mughal Empire.

Policies of Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb’s religious conservatism and his policies toward Hindus adversely impacted the stability of the Mughal Empire. His alienation of the Rajputs, previously crucial supporters, further eroded the empire’s strength.
Wars with Various Factions Engaging in conflicts with the Sikhs, Marathas, Jats, and Rajputs drained the resources of the Mughal Empire. These wars placed a considerable strain on its military and financial capacities.

Weak Successors of Aurangzeb

The subsequent Mughal rulers lacked strength and fell prey to the internal rivalries and conspiracies of the factionalized nobility, further contributing to the empire’s decline.
They proved to be ineffective military leaders and could not quell revolts. The Mughal Empire suffered from the absence of a robust ruler, an efficient bureaucracy, and a competent army, leading to its overall weakness.

Role of Nobility

Following Aurangzeb’s death, the nobility assumed significant powers, shaping political decisions and state affairs according to their interests.

The Mughal court comprised four distinct groups of nobles—the Taranis, the Iranis, the Afghans, and the Indian-born Muslims.

Internal conflicts among these groups for increased power, jagirs (land grants), and prominent offices further contributed to the empire’s decline.

Empty Treasury

Shah Jahan’s focus on monumental construction projects had depleted the imperial treasury. Additionally, Aurangzeb’s extensive wars in the South had exacerbated financial strain.
The resulting financial constraints weakened the empire.

Jagirdari Crisis

The Mughal Empire faced a crisis in the Mansabdari and Jagirdari systems, creating instability in its economy.
The scarcity of fertile jagirs aggravated the Jagirdari crisis, contributing to the empire’s economic challenges.

The Advent of the British

The arrival and rise of British and other European colonial powers marked a critical turning point for the Mughal Empire.
The Western colonial powers, with their military, financial, and political superiority, were well-informed about Indian conditions.
This development dealt a final blow to any hopes of the Mughal Empire’s survival.

Socio- Economic Decline

During the 18th century, India witnessed a socio-economic decline marked by stagnation, particularly in agriculture, where new techniques were not introduced to enhance productivity.
Little progress was evident in cultural advancements, and no significant measures were taken to ameliorate the adverse economic conditions. Simultaneously, peasants bore the brunt of heavy taxation, contributing to an agrarian crisis in rural areas.

Foreign Invasions

The invasions led by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali exacerbated the wealth drainage, severely shaking the stability of the empire.

Nadir Shah

Nadir Shah of Persia captured Qandahar and turned his attention to the Afghanistan territory. Mughal Subedar Nasir Khan, without offering resistance, fled from Afghanistan.
Nadir Shah entered Punjab through Peshawar and encountered the royal Mughal Army at Karnal on February 13, 1739.

The main contingent of the royal army, led by Emperor Mohammed Shah and Nizam-ul-Mulk, did not participate in the battle.

Consequently, the army under Sadat Khan, Khan-i-Dauran, and Nasir Mohammed signed a treaty with Nadir Shah, agreeing to pay him 2 crore in exchange for protecting their territory.

Kohinoor Diamond

Following the Battle of Panipat, Babur instructed his son Humayun to safeguard the treasures at Agra, the capital of the Lodi Dynasty since 1502. Upon joining Humayun in Agra, Babur received a splendid diamond as a gift.
The Kohinoor was presented to Humayun by the Raja of Gwalior’s family, whom he had provided protection. Humayun later gifted the diamond to Shah Tahmasp of Persia.
The Shah, in turn, sent it as a gift to Nizam Shah in the Deccan. Somehow, during the 17th century, the gem returned to the treasury of the Mughal Emperor, Shah Jahan.
When Nadir Shah sacked Delhi in AD 1739, he seized the diamond, along with other Mughal jewels, and named it Koh-i-noor. The Kohinoor changed hands several times before eventually finding a place in the Tower of London, where it is currently displayed.

Ahmad Shah Abdali

Ahmad Shah Abdali, Nadir Shah’s successor, initiated his first invasion of Punjab in AD 1748. This was followed by another invasion in AD 1749, where he defeated Moin-ul-Mulk, the Governor of Punjab.
In AD 1752, Abdali invaded Punjab for the third time, and again in AD 1756.
During the fourth invasion, he advanced up to Delhi, looting Indian territories as far as Mathura and Agra.
His sixth invasion in AD 1760 resulted in the regaining of Punjab. A fierce battle occurred on January 14, 1761, between Ahmad Shah Abdali and the Marathas at Panipat, known as the Third Battle of Panipat, in which the Marathas suffered a decisive defeat.

Prelims Facts

Which Mughal emperor granted duty-free trading facilities to the English in Bengal ? -Farrukhsiyar (UPPSC (Pre) 2010)
Who was the last Mughal emperor to sit on Mayur Singhasan?-Muhammad Shah (BPSC (Pre) 1995)
Who was the Mughal emperor at the time of Nadir Shah’s attack Muhammad Shah (UPPSC (SPI) (Mains) 2004)
A group of eunuchs and ladies dominated in the government under……… Muhammad Shah (1719-48) (UPPSC (Mains) 2004)
Which Mughal emperor is known by the name of Rangila? -Muhammad Shah (MPPSC (Pre) 2014]
Which emperor was not allowed to enter Delhi by Wazir Ghaziuddin? Shah Alam II [BPSC (Pre) 2000)
Who were known as the Kingmakers during the Mughal Period? -Husain Ali and Abdullah Khan (BPSC (Pre) 2002)
Who was the last Governor of Bengal appointed by the Mughal emperor? – Murshid Quli Khan [UPPSC (Mains) 2013]
Which Mughal emperor granted duty free trading facility to the English in Bengal ? – Farrukhsiyar (UPPSC (Pre) 2010
Emperor Shah Alam II gave the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to East India Company on – 12th August 1765 [BPSC (Pre) 2008]
Who was the last Mughal emperor of India? – Bahadur Shah Zafar (MPPSC (Pre) 2001
About Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, it was said that his empire extended from name was The last Mughal emperor was………, his father Bahadur Shah Zafar, Akbar Shah IP Chandni Chowk to Palam (BPSC (Pre) 2018 (MPPSC (Pre) 2001
Who said that after Bahadur Shah’s death, the Mughals would lose the title of the – King Canning [Nagaland PSC (Pre) 2015
Who was the first Nawab of Oudh ? Saadat Khan [UPPSC (Mains) 2008
Who was the independent founder of Kingdom of Hyderabad ? Chin Qilich Khan (UPPSC (Mains) 2011
Who succeeded Aurangzeb after his death in 1707 AD? – Bahadur Shah I (UPPSC (Mains) 2012

UPSC NCERT Practice Questions

1. Who succeeded Aurangzeb after he died in AD 1707? UPPSC (Mains) 2012

(a) Bahadur Shah I

(b) Jahandar Shah

(d) Akbar II

2. Which one of the following statements about the Sayyid brothers during the period of later Mughals is not true?

(a) They brought Jahandar Shah to power.

(b) They wielded administrative power.

(d) They reached an agreement with King Shahu

3. Which one of the following was the last Governor of Bengal appointed by the Mughal emperor? UPPSC (Mains) 2011

(a) Sarfraz Khan

(b) Murshid Quli Khan

(d) Shuja-ud-din Muhammad Khan

4. Which one among the given, acted as the de facto ruler?

(a) Farrukhsiyar

(b) Jahandar Shah

(d) Zulfikar Khan

5. Which one of the following statements is not correct about Bahadur Shah Zafar? UPPSC (Pre) 2006

(a) He was an emperor without an empire.

(b) Ibrahim Zaug and Asad Ullah Khan Ghalib were his poetry teachers.

(d) He received less than one lakh rupees as a pension from East India Company.

6. Which one among the following was not a possible reason for the success of Nadir Shah’s military campaign in Delhi? Nagaland PSC (Pre) 2012

(a) Weak Mughal emperor.

(b) Use of superior military technology by the invading army.

(d) Late preparation for the defense of Delhi.

7. Which of the following Mughal Emperors was not allowed to enter into Delhi by Wazir Ghazi-ud-din? BPSC (Pre) -2000

(a) Alamgir II

(b) Shah Alam II

(d) Bahadur Shah II

8. The last Mughal Emperor was Bahadur Shah. His father’s name was UPPSC (Pre) 2005

(a) Akbar Shah I

(b) Akbar Shah II

(d) Shah Jahan

9. Emperor Shah Alam II gave the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to East India Company on BPSC (Pre) 2008

(a) 12th August, 1765

(b) 18th August, 1765

(d) 21st August, 1965

10. Who was the Mughal Emperor during the Nadir Shah’s invasion of India? WBCS (Pre) 2012

(a) Farrukhsiyar

(b) Bahadur Shah

(d) Shah Alam

11. About Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, it was said that his empire extended from BPSC (Pre) 2018

(a) Chandni Chowk to Palam

(b) Delhi to Bihar

(d) Peshawar to Varanasi

12. Assertion (A) The reign of Jahandar Shah ended soon in 1713.

Reason (R) He was defeated by his cousin Farrukhsiyar in Agra.

Codes

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.

(d) A is false, but R is true.

13. Who among the following were the kingmakers during the Mughal period? BPSC (Pre) 2002

(a) Husain Ali and Abdullah Khan

(b) Nasir Khan and Zakaria Khan

(d) Muhammad Zanki and Muhammad Junaidi

14. Who suffered a crushing defeat in the Third Battle of Panipat?

(a) Ahmad Shah Abdali

(b) Marathas

(d) Shuja-ud-din Muhammad Khan

Know Right Answer

1 (a)

2 (A)

3 (b)

4 (d)

5 (d)

6 (b)

7 (b)

8 (b)

9 (a)

10 (c)

11 (a)

12 (a)

13 (a)

14 (b)

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1: What is the significance of the Later Mughal period in Indian history?

A1: The Later Mughal period, spanning from the late 17th to the mid-19th century, marked a decline in the political and economic power of the Mughal Empire. This era witnessed the emergence of regional powers and the beginning of European colonial influence. The weakening of central authority during this period had a profound impact on India’s political landscape.

Q2: Who were the prominent rulers during the Later Mughal period?

A2: Some of the prominent rulers during the Later Mughal period include Aurangzeb, Bahadur Shah I, Farrukhsiyar, Rafi ul-Darajat, Shah Jahan II, and Muhammad Shah. However, their reigns were characterized by political instability, frequent conflicts, and the diminishing control of the Mughal Empire over its territories.

Q3: How did the economic conditions change during the Later Mughal period?

A3: The economic conditions during the Later Mughal period were marked by a decline in trade, agriculture, and revenue collection. The administrative inefficiency and corruption led to economic mismanagement, contributing to the empire’s economic downfall. The emergence of regional powers and the entry of European trading companies further impacted the economic dynamics of the time.

Q4: What role did the European powers play during the Later Mughal period?

A4: European powers, particularly the British, French, and Portuguese, played a significant role during the Later Mughal period. They established trading posts, competed for influence, and gradually became involved in Indian politics. The East India Company, in particular, exploited the weakened Mughal authority to expand its territorial control, eventually leading to the establishment of British colonial rule in India.

Q5: How did the decline of the Later Mughal Empire contribute to the rise of regional powers?

A5: The decline of the Later Mughal Empire created a power vacuum, allowing various regional powers to assert their independence. Regional rulers, such as the Marathas, Sikhs, and Nawabs, began to carve out their own territories. This decentralization of power marked the end of Mughal dominance and set the stage for the emergence of diverse regional entities that would play a crucial role in shaping the political map of India in the centuries to come.

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UPSC NCERT Notes – Modern History – Later Mughals