UPSC NCERT Notes – Geography – Population and Urbanization

Population and urbanization are two intertwined facets that profoundly shape the socio-economic landscape of nations worldwide. Understanding the dynamics of these phenomena is crucial for policymakers, researchers, and citizens alike. The UPSC NCERT Notes on Geography provide a comprehensive exploration of population and urbanization, delving into their intricacies, challenges, and implications. Through this curated resource, aspirants gain valuable insights into demographic trends, urban growth patterns, migration dynamics, and the associated environmental and developmental impacts. With a focus on clarity, accuracy, and relevance, these notes serve as an indispensable tool for those preparing for the Civil Services Examination, equipping them with the knowledge necessary to navigate the complexities of contemporary society and contribute meaningfully to its sustainable development.

World Population

• At the start of the 21st century, the world population was more than 600 crore (6 billion). In January 2022, it increased to 790 crore (7.90 billion). 
• Over the last 10000 years, population growth has accelerated at two distinct times i.e.
• When man began domesticating animals and plants, the Agricultural revolution leads the population to grow at a steady rate.
• When man discovered fossil fuels and invented the rail Solar engine, there was an Industrial revolution in population demographics.

More than 90% of the world’s population lives on about 30% of the land surface. The world’s population distribution is extremely unequal.

Factors Affecting Population Distribution

There are many factors affecting the population distribution as follows

1. Geographical Factors

Geographical factors are described as follows

• Climate Extreme climates, such as extremely hot or cold deserts, are unsuitable for human habitation. People prefer to live in areas with a pleasant climate and little seasonal variation.
• Topography Living on plains is preferred over mountains and plateaus due to their suitability for farming, manufacturing, and service activities.
• Fertility of the Soil Soil quality plays a crucial role in determining population density. Higher soil fertility contributes to increased population density, with alluvial soil being the most conducive for cultivation.
• Availability of Water Water availability is essential for higher population density. Areas with low rainfall hinder human settlement and agricultural development, while higher rainfall positively correlates with increased population density.

Landforms Flat plains and gentle slopes are preferred for living as they are ideal for crop production, road construction, and industrial activities.

2. Social Factors

• Places with religious or cultural significance attract more visitors, while areas with social and political unrest may be avoided. Governments often offer incentives to promote settlement in sparsely populated areas or to encourage relocation from overcrowded regions.

Economic FactorsCities offer better employment opportunities, and educational and medical facilities, as well as improved transportation and communication, influencing population distribution.

3. Political Factors

• Political demography, studying the relationship between politics and population change, is a crucial factor in population distribution. Political boundaries, stability or unrest, disturbances, migration, trade, and government policies significantly impact population distribution.

Continent Population distribution

Continent	Population (2018)	Land Area (sq. km)	Density (per sq. km)	Percentage of World Population
Asia	4,545,133,094	31,033,123	146	59.5%
Africa	1,287,920,518	29,648,481	43	16.9%
Europe	742,648,010	22,134,900	34	9.7%
Latin America and the Caribbean	652,012,001	20,139,378	32	8.5%
Northern America	363,844,490	18,651,660	20	4.8%
Oceania	41,261,212	8,486,460	5	0.5%

Population Density

• The ratio between the number of people and the land they inhabit is known as population density. This ratio is typically expressed as the number of people per square kilometer.
• It is calculated by dividing the population of a country or region by its total land area:

Population Density = Population / Area

• High population density occurs when a large number of people inhabit a relatively small land area, leading to crowded conditions. Conversely, low population density results from a smaller population spread across a larger land area.
• Numerous factors, such as soil quality, rainfall, climate, and economic development, influence population density. These factors vary across regions, contributing to different population density levels.
• The concentration of people in a specific area is measured by density, which can be categorized into high-density, medium-density, and low-density areas.

High-Density Areas:

• In four distinct global regions, we find varying population densities: China and the Far East, South and South-East Asia, Europe and the European part of the Soviet Union, and North America’s Eastern coastal plain.

Medium-Density Areas:

• Medium-density population areas are dispersed rather than forming a continuous belt. These regions emerge between high and low-density areas due to favorable economic opportunities. Notable medium-density areas include the Nile valley delta, Morocco’s Mediterranean coast, Algeria, Tunisia in the North, the Brazilian coast south of the Amazon, and the coasts of Argentina, Venezuela, and Chile.

Low-Density Areas:

• Africa and Asia exhibit extensive low-density population areas. A distinctively sparsely populated region stretches from the Western margins of the Sahara to the Eastern margins of desert plateaus and mountainous regions of Central Asia, passing through Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Afghanistan.

Densely Populated Regions of the World:

Eastern Asia:

• Population (February 2019): 1,657,057,719.
• Population Density: 144 per square kilometer.
• Key Countries: China, Japan, North and South Korea, Taiwan.
• Agriculture is the primary occupation in these countries, with population concentration in river valleys, coastal plains, and deltaic regions. For example, China’s population is concentrated in the Eastern and southeastern parts, specifically in the river valleys of Huang Ho, Yangtze, and Si-kiang.
• Japan, the most industrialized nation in Asia, exhibits low population density in the Hokkaido island due to adverse climatic conditions.
• Growth Rate: 1%, lower than South Asia and the world average.

South Asia:

• Population (February 2019): 1,905,068,833.
• South Asia accounts for 35% of the world’s total population.

South-East Asia:

• Approximately 8.5% of the world’s population resides in this region.
• Key Countries: Indonesia, Vietnam, Philippines, Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Malaysia.
• Agriculture is the main occupation, and population concentration occurs in river valleys, plains, and deltaic tracts.
• Notable densely populated areas include the Irrawaddy River valley and delta region in Myanmar, the downstream valleys of the Menam and Mekong rivers in Thailand, the plain region of the Mekong River in Cambodia and Southern Vietnam, the plains of Tonkin in Northern Vietnam, the Western coastal plains in Malaysia, and Java and Madura islands in Indonesia.
• Java island, constituting only 7% of Indonesia’s area, accommodates around 70% of the country’s population due to fertile soil and favorable conditions for agriculture.
• Luzon Island in the Philippines also exhibits a high concentration of population.

South-Central Asia:

• Population (February 2019): 1,977,536,868.
• Approximately 25.75% of the world’s population resides in this region.
• Countries: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan (formerly part of the USSR).
• These countries primarily have rural and agricultural economies, with population concentration in river valleys, deltaic tracts, and coastal plains.
• Over 40% of the Indian population is in the Sutlej-Ganga plains.
• High population density is observed in the deltaic tracts of Mahanadi, Krishna-Godavari, and Cauvery on the Eastern coast of India.
• The Ganga-Brahmaputra delta is the most densely populated area in South Asia.
• Bangladesh’s 90% population resides in the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta.
• In Pakistan, most people live in the lower plains and delta of the Indus, and in Sri Lanka, the majority reside in the southwestern part, while Nepal has a concentrated population in its Terai region.

South-West Asia:

• A hot and dry desert region with populations mainly found in doab regions, coastal areas, foothills of mountains, river valleys, and near water bodies.
• Countries: Iran, Iraq, Turkiye.
• Economic activities include oil extraction, agriculture, and animal husbandry.
• In Iran, the population is concentrated in the Western and South-Western Kurd regions.
• Iraq’s population centers in the Doab region of Dajla and Farat (Tigris and Euphrates rivers).
• In Turkiye, Lebanon, and Israel, the population is mainly concentrated in coastal areas and around the Mediterranean region.

Europe:

• The second most densely populated continent after Asia.
• Western Europe is the most densely populated, followed by Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, and Northern Europe.
• The population mainly resides in the coalfields and river valleys of the Rhine, Danube, Elbe, and Dnieper.
• The population is concentrated between 40°N and 60°N latitudes, with the most densely populated areas between 45°N and 55°N latitudes.
• A densely populated belt extends along the 50°N latitude from Great Britain to the Donets basin in Russia, known as the Axis of European population.
• Russia, located in both Europe and Asia, is the most populous country in Europe.
• Vatican City is the least populous and smallest internationally recognized independent state.

Eastern Anglo-America:

• Includes the Eastern parts of the USA and Canada.
• The East Coast is the most populated coastal area of the USA.
• Four densely populated areas: Atlantic Coastal Region (from Boston to New York to Philadelphia), Upper Ohio Valley (dense population due to iron and steel industry based on coal deposits), Interior Basin (around the Great Lakes), and New England Region (Northeastern USA).

Major cities in this region include Pittsburgh and Youngstown.

• Great Lake Region: Major urban areas in this region are Chicago, located on the Southern coast of Michigan, as well as Detroit, Cleveland, and Buffalo on the Western and Southern coasts of Erie and the Southern coastal parts of Ontario.
• St. Lawrence Valley: About two-thirds of Canada’s population resides in this region, with important cities such as Ottawa, Montreal, Toronto, Quebec, etc.
• Notably, over 85% of the population of the USA and Canada lives on the Eastern side of the 100° W longitude.
• The Western and Central parts of the USA and Canada are sparsely populated, with mountainous ranges like the Rockies and plateaus leading to low population density.
• In the central prairie region, commercial agriculture of wheat is practiced.
• In the Californian valley on the Western coast, major cities include Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, and Vancouver.
• The Eastern Anglo-American group is one of the most economically developed groups globally.

South America:

• As of February 2019, South America’s population is estimated at 430,544,988.
• Population density is 25 persons per square kilometer, covering 12% of the world’s area and accounting for 5.6% of the world’s population.
• Nearly two-thirds of the population resides in Brazil, Argentina, Columbia, Peru, and Venezuela.
• Various geographical features, such as the Atacama desert and Patagonia, contribute to different climates in South America.

Regions like the Orinoco plateau (Venezuela) and Mato Grosso (Brazil) are Savanna grasslands but are unsuitable for agriculture due to uncertain rainfall and high evaporation.

• Coastal areas, the Andes, and certain hilly tracts have higher population density due to favorable climate, fertile soil, and mineral availability.
• Urbanization is high, with 60-80% of the population in Argentina, Brazil, Columbia, Chile, Venezuela, and Peru living in cities.
• Brazil is the most populous country in South America and the fifth most populous globally.
• Suriname, the smallest country in the continent, has one of the most ethnically diverse populations.

Africa:

• Africa covers 20% of the world’s area, but only 16.72% of the world’s population lives there.
• Most of Africa’s population is concentrated near water bodies, resulting in dense populations near coasts and lakes.
• The Nile Valley is the most densely populated region, hosting around 12% of Africa’s total population.
• The Ethiopian Highlands, Mediterranean regions of Northern Africa, and coastal regions of Guinea and Northern Nigeria are also densely populated.
• Sparse population regions include the Great Sahara Desert, Kalahari Desert, and dense Equatorial forests of the Congo basin.
• Nigeria, with its proximity to the sea, has a densely populated region due to ports facilitating economic activities.

Australia and New Zealand:

• Australia covers about 5.2% of the world’s total area but has less than half a percent (0.4%) of the world’s total population.
• The majority of Australia’s population is concentrated in two widely separated coastal regions, the South-East and East, and the South-West. Among these, the South-East and East region is the largest both in terms of area and population.
• There is a high concentration of population in Australia, with more than 50.9% residing in six capital cities—Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Canberra, Brisbane, and Perth. Sydney and Melbourne alone account for nearly half of Australia’s total urban population.
• The Murray-Darling basin supports population density due to commercial agriculture and animal husbandry.
• Contrastingly, the West-Australian deserts, semi-arid areas of the Great Artesian basin, and the monsoon regions of North Australia have sparse populations.
• As of February 2019, the United Nations estimated New Zealand’s population to be just over 4.79 million. 
• The majority of the population inhabits the North and South islands, along with Waiheke island. Over three-quarters of the population live in the North island, and one-third of the total population resides in the Auckland region.
• In New Zealand, the majority of the population is of European descent (70%), with the indigenous Maori being the largest minority (16.5%). Asians (15.3%) and non-Maori Pacific islanders (9.0%) make up other significant groups.

Population Change:

• Population change refers to the alteration in the number of people over a specific period. Until the 1800s, the global population grew slowly due to high mortality rates, lack of healthcare, and insufficient food production.
• The world’s population reached 1 billion in 1804 and doubled in 155 years to 2 billion in 1959—a phenomenon known as population explosion. The increase was attributed to improved food and medicine, leading to a decline in death rates while birth rates remained relatively high.

Components of Population Change:

• Migration: Movement from one place of origin to another, with the origin being the place of departure and the destination being the place of arrival.
• Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Expressed as the number of live births in a year per thousand of the population.

CBR = (Live births during the year / Mid-year population) × 100

• Crude Death Rate (CDR): Plays an active role in population change, with population growth resulting from increasing birth rates and decreasing death rates.

CDR = (Number of deaths / Estimated mid-year population of that year) × 100

Growth Rate of Population:

• The population change is expressed as a percentage.
• Natural Growth of Population: Increase by the difference between births and deaths in a particular region between two points in time.

Natural Growth = Births – Deaths           Actual Growth of Population = Births – Deaths + In Migration – Out Migration

Migration

• Migration is the act of shifting one’s home, not just the physical house itself. In the realm of migration, two distinct processes come into play: emigration and immigration.
• Emigration involves leaving a country, while immigration is the act of entering a new country. Consequently, emigration results in a decrease in the population of a country, while immigration contributes to an increase.
• Migration entails the movement of people from one location to another, and it is a highly selective process. It can be age-selective, occupation-selective, or sex-selective. Generally, migration is male-dominated, particularly in developing countries.
• It is not merely a matter of relocating people; migration is a fundamental process that alters the population structure and significantly contributes to understanding the spatial content and relationships within a specific geographical area.

Types of Migration

Various types of migration include:

• Rural to Urban Migration: More common in developing countries as industrialization takes effect (urbanization).
• Urban to Rural Migration: More prevalent in developed countries due to the higher cost of urban living.
• Rural to Rural Migration: Primarily occurs due to marriages of rural individuals to other rural areas.
• Urban to Urban Migration: Mainly common in developed countries, where people migrate from one urban area to another.

Other types of migration include:

• Seasonal Human Migration: Based on seasonal economic activities like agriculture and tourism.
• International Migration: Occurs when people cross state boundaries and stay in the host state for a minimum length of time.

Push and Pull Factors of Migration

• Push factors make the place of origin less attractive due to reasons like unemployment, poor living conditions, political turmoil, unpleasant climate, natural disasters, epidemics, and socio-economic backwardness. 
• On the other hand, pull factors make the destination seem more attractive, such as better job opportunities, living conditions, peace and stability, security of life and property, and a pleasant climate.

Trends in Population Growth

• As of January 1, 2022, the global population is estimated to be 7.90 billion. The population has grown over centuries, with slow growth in the early periods. The last few hundred years have seen an alarming increase. After the introduction of agriculture around 12,000 to 8,000 years ago, the population was roughly 8 million.
• Around AD 1750, at the onset of the Industrial Revolution, the world population was 550 million. The 18th century witnessed an explosion in population after the Industrial Revolution, aided by technological advancements that reduced the death rate and facilitated accelerated population growth.

Doubling Time of World Population

• The human population has increased more than tenfold in the past 500 years. In the 20th century alone, the population quadrupled. It took over a million years to reach the 1 billion mark, but only 12 years to rise from 5 billion to 6 billion.
• There is significant variation among regions in doubling their population, with developed countries taking more time compared to developing countries. 
• Most population growth is concentrated in the developing world, where the population is booming. As of January 2022, India’s population growth rate is 0.99% per year, while it is 0.4% in America and 1.1% in Canada.

Demographic Transition

• The demographic transition encompasses the transformation that populations undergo, transitioning from high rates of births and deaths to low rates. 
• Historically, the prevalence of high birth and death rates hindered rapid population growth, with many populations not only failing to expand but also facing complete extinction when birth rates couldn’t compensate for high death rates. The decline in death rates followed improvements in living conditions and nutrition.
• The Demographic Transition Model aims to illustrate how population dynamics evolve as a country undergoes development.
• The Demographic Transition Theory serves as a generalized depiction of the changing patterns of mortality, fertility, and growth rates during the shift from one demographic regime to another.
• Coined by American demographer Frank W. Notestein in the mid-20th century, the term has since been further developed and expanded upon by various scholars.

Stages of Demographic Transition

The classical demographic transition model consists of four stages:

• Stage 1: Pre-transition – Characterized by high birth rates and fluctuating death rates, with population growth kept low by Malthusian preventative (late age at marriage) and positive (famine, war, pestilence) checks.
• Stage 2: Early transition – In this stage, the death rate starts to decline, leading to rapid population growth as birth rates remain high.
• Stage 3: Late transition – Birth rates begin to decline, resulting in a deceleration of population growth.
• Stage 4: Post-transition – Post-transitional societies feature low birth and death rates, with negligible population growth or even a decline.

Population Structure

• Population structure involves analyzing characteristics such as age and sex composition, birth and death rates, natural growth rate, infant mortality rate, life expectancy, sex ratio, crude population density, etc.

Age-Sex Composition of Population

• Understanding the population based on age and sex composition is crucial. Age differences can create economic disparities.

Age Pyramids

• Age pyramids, useful for analyzing a population’s age structure, are typically represented graphically.
• The vertical axis is graduated in age groups, usually five, from zero at the bottom to 80 or 90 at the top. The horizontal axis shows the numbers or percentages of males and females in these groups.
• Under normal circumstances, the number of people in each age group decreases with each successive year, leading to the graphical representation of the age structure resembling a pyramid.

Types of Age Pyramids

Three types of age pyramids are categorized as follows:

• Expanding/Growing population – Triangular with a wide base, seen in less developed countries like Nigeria, Bangladesh, and Mexico, indicating a high birth rate.
• Constant/Stationary population – Bell-shaped and tapered towards the top, indicating almost equal birth and death rates, leading to a constant population, exemplified by Australia.
• Declining population – Narrow base and tapered top, showcasing low birth and death rates, observed in developed countries like Japan, where population growth is often zero or negative.

Sex Composition

• The demographic characteristic of the number of women and men in a country holds significance, and the ratio between them is known as the sex ratio.
• In certain countries, the sex ratio is determined using the formula:

Sex Ratio=Male Population/Female Population×1000

• In India, the sex ratio is calculated using the formula:

Sex Ratio= Female Population/Male Population×1000

• The sex ratio provides crucial information about the status of women in a country.
• Regions with prevalent gender discrimination often exhibit an unfavorable sex ratio for women. 
• These areas may witness practices such as female foeticide, female infanticide, and domestic violence against women, often linked to the lower socio-economic status of women in these regions.
• Globally, the average sex ratio is approximately 102 males per 100 females. Notably, Latvia holds the highest sex ratio with 85 males per 100 females, while Qatar has 311 males per 100 females, reflecting significant variations worldwide.
• The global sex ratio pattern shows variations, with 139 countries favoring females and 72 countries showing an unfavorable ratio according to the United Nations.
• Asia, in general, experiences a low sex ratio, with countries like China, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and Afghanistan displaying lower ratios. 
• Conversely, a significant portion of Europe, including Russia, has a male minority, attributed to improved women’s status and historical male-dominated out-migration.

Urbanization

• Urbanization involves the process of a percentage increase in urban areas and urban population. 
• The definition of urban or non-urban areas varies among countries, but broadly, urban areas are characterized by the prominence of secondary and tertiary economic activities.
• The study of urban areas can be categorized into:
  • Spacing between cities
  • The internal structure of cities
  • Rapid urban growth is a recent phenomenon.
• Historically, few settlements reached a population size exceeding a few thousand inhabitants until recent times. London was the first city to reach a population of one million around 1810 AD.
• By 1982, approximately 175 cities globally had surpassed the one million population mark.
• In the modern era, the Industrial Revolution and technological development have been pivotal factors in urbanization.
• It is observed that in the first half of the 20th century, urbanization was rapid primarily in developed countries.
• The second half of the 20th century witnessed urbanization in developing countries due to population explosion and rural-urban migration. Major economic activities in urban centers include industries, trade, commerce, and services.
• According to a United Nations Report, presently, 55% of the world’s population resides in urban areas, and it is projected that 68% of the world’s population will live in urban areas by the year 2050.

Causes of Urbanisation

The causes of urbanization include:

Technological Advancement

• Urbanization occurs when there is a shift from a traditional agricultural economy to a modernized phase of large-scale mechanized production due to technological advancement.
• When factories or industries are established in a region, they create a demand for labor, leading to the development of manufacturers, retailers, and service providers. This, in turn, generates more job opportunities and a demand for housing.
• With technological advancement, traditional manufacturing factories are often replaced by technology-driven industrial hubs or parks, such as Silicon Valley. These hubs draw workers from various regions, contributing significantly to the process of urbanization.

Social Factors

• Social factors, including the lifestyle of cities, a higher standard of living, improved educational and healthcare facilities, modern sanitation, and housing, as well as recreational amenities, attract people to migrate towards cities and towns. The availability of social benefits and services, often lacking in rural areas, becomes a compelling reason for urban migration.

Commercialization

• Urbanization is driven by commerce and trade. In the modern era, the distribution of goods and services, along with commercial transactions, has led to the development of modern marketing institutions and exchange methods, expediting the urbanization process.
• Urban centers offer diverse livelihood opportunities, ranging from manufacturing industries to service sectors. The growth of services and industries creates higher value-added jobs and better employment prospects, attracting individuals from rural areas.

Rural-Urban Transformation

• The discovery of minerals, resource exploitation, the growth of agri-business, and other factors contribute to the transformation of rural areas into urban centers. This transformation necessitates infrastructural development, educational and medical institutions, transportation networks, banking facilities, etc., leading rural communities to adopt urban cultures with embedded values.

Modernization

• Technological advancement, sophisticated technology, improved infrastructure, communication networks, medical facilities, etc., have collectively made urban areas more attractive as places to live.

Settlement Classification of Urban

• The definition of urban areas varies across countries, often based on criteria such as population size, occupational structure, and administrative setup.

Population Size

• Population size is a critical criterion for defining urban areas in most countries. The lower limit of population size for a settlement to be designated as urban varies, such as 1500 persons per square km in Columbia, 2000 in Argentina and Portugal, 2500 in the USA and Thailand, 5000 in India, and 30000 in Japan. India also considers factors like density (400 people per square km) and the share of non-agricultural workers.

Occupational Structure

• Some countries, like India, consider major economic activities, in addition to population size, as a criterion for designating a settlement as an urban area. In Italy, a settlement is labeled urban if more than 50% of its economically productive population is engaged in non-agricultural pursuits.

Administration

• Administrative setup is another criterion in some countries for classifying a settlement as urban. For example, in India, any settlement, regardless of its size, is classified as urban if it has a municipality, cantonment board, or notified area council. Similarly, in Latin American countries like Brazil and Bolivia, any administrative center is considered urban, irrespective of its population.

Location

• The location of urban centers is evaluated based on their functions. For instance, the location requirements of a holiday resort differ from those of an industrial town, a military center, or a seaport.
• Strategic towns necessitate locations with inherent defensive advantages, mining towns thrive where economically valuable minerals are abundant, and industrial towns typically rely on local sources of energy or raw materials.
• Similarly, tourist centers hinge on appealing landscapes, marine beaches, springs with medicinal water, or historical relics, while ports are dependent on having a harbor, among other factors.
• The earliest urban settlements were strategically established based on the accessibility of water, building materials, and fertile land.

Urbanization Stages:

• According to a United Nations Organization report, rural-urban migration is the primary driver behind nearly one-third of global urbanization. 
• This migration predominantly occurs toward capital cities and metropolitan areas, referred to as the Secular Shift of Population. 
• Developed countries have already reached a saturation point in urbanization, whereas developing countries are poised for accelerated urbanization in the coming years.

Initial Stage:

• In this phase, the percentage of urbanization gradually increases, represented by a gentle slope line in diagrams. The urban population ratio is up to 25% of the total population, as observed in countries like Bangladesh, Nepal, and several African nations.

Accelerated Stage:

• During this stage, the percentage of the urban population experiences rapid growth, depicted by a relatively vertical curve line. The urban population ratio reaches nearly 75% of the total population, notable in European and South Asian nations.

Last Stage:

• In the final stage, the curve becomes horizontal rapidly as the urban population attains saturation levels. Examples include New Zealand, France, and Canada.

• Patrick Geddes is renowned as the Father of Modern Town Planning in Europe, credited with introducing the term ‘Conurbation’ to describe the agglomeration of cities or towns.
• Lewis Mumford, in his book “The Culture of Cities” (1938), delineated six stages of urban center development, as outlined below:
• Eopolis: Signifying the initial stage of a town as a village community with its economic foundation rooted in agriculture.
• Polis: Denoting an association of population with some level of mechanization and specialization.
• Metropolis: Characterizing a city or town that serves as the capital of a state or region. At this stage, the size expands, and suburbs begin to develop, with adequate food and water supply.
• Megalopolis: Representing a stage where the hinterlands of urban centers begin to urbanize, as seen in regions like Tokyo-Yokohama-Kawasaki and Boston-Richmont-Baltimore.
• Tyranopolis: Refers to a town or city experiencing a severely deteriorating situation, often linked to trade depression or military powers led by different warlords.
• Necropolis: Indicating the worst stage of a town or city, where citizens shift to rural areas or hinterlands due to war, disease, or economic breakdown. Recovery from such a state may occur after a significant period, as exemplified by Kannauj, Hampi, etc.

Categories of Urban Settlements

Urban centers are classified into various categories based on size, available services, and functions performed. These classifications include town, city, million city, conurbation, and megalopolis.

• Town: The concept of a town is best understood about a village. While population size is a consideration, functional differences between towns and villages may not always be distinct. Specific functions like manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and professional services characterize towns.
• City: A city can be seen as an advanced town that has surpassed its local or regional counterparts. According to Lewis Mumford, the city embodies the physical form of the highest and most complex type of associative life.
• Megacities: A megacity is a broad term for cities and their suburbs with a population exceeding 10 million. New York was the first to achieve megacity status by 1950, with approximately 12.5 million residents. Currently, there are 31 megacities, and their prevalence has increased more in developing countries than in developed ones over the last 50 years.
• Smart Cities: Smart cities are an innovative approach to managing metropolitan areas, focusing on enhancing residents’ sustainability and quality of life through information and communication technologies, improved energy efficiency, and sustainability measures. As urbanization is expected to reach 70% of the global population by 2050, smart cities utilize tools like the Internet of Things (IoT) to create a network for intelligent interactions and improve infrastructure and technology.
• Conurbation: Coined by Patrick Geddes in 1915, the term conurbation refers to a vast area of urban development resulting from the merging of originally separate towns or cities, such as Greater London, Manchester, Chicago, and Tokyo.
• Million City: The number of million cities worldwide has seen unprecedented growth. London reached a million residents in 1800, followed by Paris in 1850 and New York in 1860. By 1950, there were around 80 such cities. It is projected that by 2030, 662 cities will have at least 1 million residents.
• Megalopolis: Popularized by Jean Gottmann in 1957, megalopolis, a Greek term meaning “great city,” signifies a super-metropolitan region formed by the union of conurbations. An example is the urban landscape stretching from Boston in the North to South of Washington in the USA.

Classifications of Towns/Cities

Towns and cities can be categorized as follows:

• Administrative Towns: These are national capitals housing the administrative offices of central governments, such as New Delhi, Canberra, Beijing, Addis Ababa, Washington DC, and London. Provincial towns can also serve administrative functions, like Victoria (British Columbia), Albany (New York), and Chennai (Tamil Nadu).
• Trading and Commercial Towns: Important trading centers include agricultural market towns like Winnipeg and Kansas City, financial centers like Frankfurt and Amsterdam, large inland centers like Manchester and St. Louis, and transport nodes such as Lahore, Baghdad, and Agra.
• Cultural Towns: Places of pilgrimage, like Jerusalem, Mecca, Jagannath Puri, and Varanasi, are considered cultural hubs with significant religious importance.

Various Types of Towns

• Statutory Towns: These include all places declared by state law to have a municipality, corporation, cantonment board, or notified town area committee.
• Census Towns: Defined as urban areas satisfying the following criteria:
• A minimum population of 5000.
• At least 75% of the population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits.
• According to the 2011 Census, 52 cities in India had a population of one million or more, and the number of urban areas and towns has increased over successive decades.

Problems of Urbanization

Urban areas around the world face diverse challenges, with some common problems, including:

• Unemployment: High levels of unemployment and underemployment are prevalent in developing world megacities, pushing the urban poor to create their own employment within the informal sector.
• Housing Problems: Population growth, both through natural increase and rural-urban migration, outpaces the housing supply.
• Water and Sewage Problems: Inadequate sewage facilities, often outdated, lead to untreated sewage flowing into waterways. Solid waste disposal services are also insufficient.
• Health and Nutrition Problems: Overcrowded housing, air pollution, uncollected garbage, and dangerous workplaces contribute to infectious and parasitic diseases.
• Air, Water, and Noise Pollution: Developing world megacities grapple with cleaning up pollution from uncontrolled industrial growth, linked to acute and chronic illnesses like asthma.

The UN emphasizes the following needs for the future:

• Strengthen local government effectiveness.
• Implement new approaches to alleviate poverty through local job promotion.
• Develop supportive communities.
• Make cities more environmentally friendly.

Urbanization in India

• Urbanization in India is a result of adopting a mixed economy that led to private sector development.
• According to the UN State of Population 2007, by 2030, around 40.79% of India’s population is expected to reside in urban areas. The UN World Urbanization Prospects 2018 report notes that about 34% of India’s population lives in urban areas, a 3% increase since Census 2011.
• Several factors contribute to urbanization in India, including population growth, migration, and the expansion of towns and cities. Recent reports highlight Chennai and Delhi as unplanned cities, with environmental issues such as pollution and uncontrolled expansion.

Problems of Urbanization in India

• Unplanned urbanization in India has led to numerous issues:
• Overcrowding: Urban areas face the challenge of accommodating too many people in limited space due to overpopulation.
• Poor sanitation is common in slums and unauthorised colonies of urban areas Problem of proper drainage has become a common trend in such colonies and slums. This gives rise to many sanitation-related diseases as diarrhea and malaria spread.
• Environmental Degradation According to UNDE  70% of Indian population is at risk of floods and 60% susceptible to earthquakes. The risk is higher in urban areas owing to density and overcrowding.
• Poverty Due to overpopulation, many people are unable to find jobs and it leads to poverty in urban areas. It also leads challenge of reducing exploitation, relieving misery, and creating more human conditions for the urban poor.
• Transportation High-income groups can easily afford private vehicles which lead problem of traffic congestion in turn decreasing the efficiency of public transport.
• Water Shortage As the cities grew in size and number, it leads to a shortage of water supply in these areas.
• Poor Solid Waste Management More population is responsible for more waste generation. The unscientific waste handling triggers health hazards and urban environment degradation

Prelims Facts

• Malthus propounded the most famous theories, called the ‘Malthusian Theory’ which is related to – Population [UPPSC (Pre) 2022]
• The demographic dividend is the term which means – Working population of 15 to 59 years [UPPSC (Pre) 2022]
• In South Asia, the Country with the largest percentage of aged population is- Sri Lanka (UPPSC (Pre) 2013]
• In developing countries the population pyramid has a- Wide base and narrow top IMPSC (Pre) 2018]
• According to Malthusian theory of Population, population increases in – Geometrical Progression [UKPSC (Pre) 2014]
• What is the correct definition of Dependency Ratio? – Ratio of non-working population to working population UPPSC (Pre) 2013]
• Which two countries have the largest Hindu population except India? – Nepal and Bangladesh [JPSC (Pre) 2011]
• According to Philip M Houser, the migration of people from rural areas to urban areas is known as – Population Implosion [UPPSC (Mains) 2003]
• The largest migrant population is found in – North Oceania [UPPSC (Pre) 1999]
• Which country in South Asia is the most urbanised country? – Bhutan [UPPSC (Pre) 2008, UPPSC (Pre) 2014]
• The most urbanised country of South America is – Uruguay [UPPSC (Mains) 2008]
• Which stage is called the accelerated stage in the urbanization curve? – Stage 2 [UPPSC (Pre) 2021]
• Who is associated with the concept of primate city?- Mark Jefferson [UPPSC (Pre) 2015)
• A high birth rate is associated with – a low female literacy rate (WBCS (Pre) 2012
• Birth rate in the country is calculated through – the number of children born per 1000 population in the country [UPPSC (Pre) 2014]
• Which continent has the highest growth of population? – Africa [UPPSC (Pre) 2008, MPPSC (Pre) 2011]
• Where do we find a beehive concentration of two -third of the world’s population? – South and East Asia [BPSC (Pre) 2004]
• Among the SAARC countries the most densely populated country is – Bangladesh [UPPSC (Pre) 2009]
• Life expectancy is highest in the world in – Japan IUPPSC (Pre) 2003, IAS (Pre) 2013]
• As per UNDESA, what percentage of the world’s total population lives in urban areas? – 55% [UPPSC (Pre) 2018)
• In which region the dispersed settlements are found? – Mountainous, low rainfall and Konkan Coast regions IMPSC (Pre) 2014]
• What are the elements of rural community? – we-feeling, territory, self-sufficiency [UPPSC (Pre) 2021]
• The expansion of Urban India is a platform for – Industrial growth, modern Service sector growth, and creation of improved income [UPPSC (Pre) 2015)
• More than one-fourth of India’s urban population lives in the two states of – Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh IMPPSC (Pre) 2018

UPSC NCERT Practice Questions

1. The birth rate in the country is measured as UPPSC (Pre) 2014

(a) the number of children born in the country.

(b) the number of children born as a percentage of total women in the country.

(c) the number of children born per 1000 eligible couple.

d) the number of children born per 1000 population in the country.

2. Arrange the following countries of the world having the highest density of population (year 2012) in descending order. MPSC (Pre) 2021

1. Bangladesh

2. Singapore

3. Malta

4. Monaco

5. Mauritius

6. Bahrain

Codes

(a) 1, 2, 6, 5, 3, 4

(b) 1, 4, 2, 3, 5, 6

(c) 4, 2, 5, 3, 1, 6

(d) 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 3

3. T Malthus propounded one of the most famous theories, called The Malthusian theory which is related to UPPSC (Pre) 2022

(a) poverty

(b) population

(c) unemployment

(d) economy

4. The demographic dividend is UPPSC (Pre) 2022

(a) working population of 15 to 59 years.

(b) working population of 14 to 50 years.

(c) 0-6 years population.

(d) working population of above 60 years.

5. Which of the following variable(s) is/are displayed in population pyramids?

1. Age-groups

 2. Sex indicators (male and female)

Codes

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

6. The shape of the population pyramid reflects the characteristics of the population. The shape of the pyramid in India is

(a) bell-shaped and tapered towards the top.

(b) narrow base and a tapered top.

(c) broad base and a tapered top.

(d) narrow base and narrow top.

7. In South Asia, the country with the largest percentage of the aged population is UPPSC (Pre) 2013

(a) Bhutan 

(b) India 

(c) Nepal 

(d) Sri Lanka

8. In developing countries, the population pyramid has a MPSC (Pre) 2018

(a) narrow base and wide top.

(b) wide base and wide top.

(c) wide base and narrow top.

(d) narrow base and narrow top.

9. Match the important words in the definition of the optimum population with the scholars who gave them. MPC Pre 2020

List I	List II
A. Boulding	1. Maximum economic growth
B. Dalton	2. Maximise standards of living
C. Peterson	3. Maximum social welfare
D. Car Saunders	4. Maximise income per head

Codes

(a) 4 3 2 1

(b) 2 4 1 3 

(c) 2 3 4 1 

(d) 3 1 4 2 

10 According to Malthusian theory of population, population increases in UKPSC (Pre) 2014

(a) geometrical progression 

(b) arithmetic progression

(c) harmonic progression

(d) None of the above

11. The demographic dividend occurs due to

1. falling birth rate and consequent shift in the age structure.

2. falling birth rate and changes in the age structure towards the adult working ages.

3. falling death rate.

Codes

(a) Only 2

(b) Only 1

(c) Only 3

(d) 2 and 3

12. In which one of the following principal agglomerations, do we find a beehive concentration of two-thirds of the world’s population? BPSC (Pre) 2004

(a) North-East USA

(b) Central Europe

(c) South and East Asia

(d) North-West Europe

13.  Which of the following is called the accelerated stage in the urbanization curve? UPPSC (Pre) 2021

(a) Stage 1

(b) Stage 2

 (c) Stage 3 

(d) Stage 4

14. Consider the following statements. IAS (Pre) 2021

1. ‘Right of the city’ as a whole Human rights and in this regard, UN-Habitat monitors the commitments made by each country.

2. ‘The right of the city’ gives every resident of the city the right to take back public places in the city and to participate in public.

3. The right of the city means that the state cannot deny any public service or facility to the unauthorised settlements of the city.

Which of the above statements are correct?

(a) Only 1

 (b) Only 3 

(c) 1 and 2 

(d) 2 and 3

15. An increase in urbanization leads to which of the following? UPPSC (Pre) 2003

1. Increase in slum population of metropolitan cities.

2. Increasing concentration of population in large urban centres.

3. Rapid decline in quantity and quality of services in urban areas.

4. Rapid upgrade of infrastructure features.

Codes

(a) 1, 2 and 3

(b) 2, 3 and 4

(c) 1, 2 and 4

(d) All of these

16. Which one of the following is the first urban settlement in the world to reach a population size of one million (million-plus city)?

(a) London

(b) Paris

(c) New York

(d) Washington DC

17.  Urbanisation has not helped in economic development due to which of the following factors? MPSC (Pre) 2017

1. The neglect of slums in urban areas in planning strategies.

2. The unorganised sectors are exploited by capitalists, landlords and contractors.

3. Increasing use of capital intensive technologes resulting in unemployment.

4. The benefits of growth are unequally shared by various sectors of society.

Codes

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 1 and 3

(d) All of these

Know Right Answer

1 (d)

2 (c)

3 (b)

4 (a)

5 (c)

6 (a)

7 (d)

8 (c)

9 (b)

10 (a)

11 (a)

12 (c)

13 (b)

14 (d)

15 (d)

16 (a)

17 (d)

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1: Why is the study of population and urbanization important in the context of UPSC preparation?

A1: The study of population and urbanization is crucial for UPSC preparation because it forms a significant part of the Geography syllabus. Understanding demographic trends, population distribution, and urbanization patterns helps aspirants comprehend the social and economic fabric of a country. Moreover, it enables candidates to analyze the challenges and opportunities associated with rapid urbanization, making them better equipped to answer questions related to sustainable development and urban planning in the UPSC examination.

Q2: How do NCERT notes on Geography contribute to a comprehensive understanding of population dynamics?

A2: NCERT notes on Geography provide a solid foundation for understanding population dynamics by covering fundamental concepts such as population growth, distribution, and demographic transitions. These notes often include case studies and examples that help aspirants grasp the practical implications of theoretical concepts. Additionally, NCERT materials are aligned with the UPSC syllabus, making them a valuable resource for candidates seeking a comprehensive understanding of population-related topics, which are frequently tested in the examination.

Q3: In the context of urbanization, what role do UPSC NCERT notes play in preparing candidates for the examination?

A3: UPSC NCERT notes on urbanization serve as a reliable source for aspirants preparing for the examination. These notes provide insights into the challenges and opportunities posed by rapid urbanization, covering topics such as urban planning, slums, smart cities, and sustainable development. By studying these notes, candidates gain a nuanced understanding of the social, economic, and environmental dimensions of urbanization, enabling them to answer UPSC questions that require critical analysis of urban development policies and their impact on society.

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