UPSC NCERT Notes - Various Aspects of Ancient India

India a country in South Asia derives its name from the Indus River. We discussed so many characteristics of Ancient History, but still we have certain features and outlooks that are relevant and don’t fall under any of the previous chapters.

Table of Contents

Introduction

India, often referred to as the Cradle of Human Civilization, played a pivotal role in shaping the foundations of modern society.
Many cornerstones of contemporary disciplines such as science, medicine, mathematics, metaphysics, religion, and astronomy find their origins in India.
Throughout the evolution of civilization and states, various facets of subjects were cultivated in ancient India, with centers of education, science, and technology—including mathematics, astronomy, and astrology—flourishing as integral components of this rich cultural heritage.

Brief Timeline of Ancient History

Era	Date	Important Facts
Pre-historic Times	Beginning to 3000 BC	This period is related to the history of primitive man. In this period, humans hunt for food. Later on, man invented fire and wheel.
Indus Valley Civilization / Harappan Civilization	2500-1560 BC	The Indus Valley Civilization is also called Harappan Civilization after the first city to be excavated; Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan). The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning.
Vedic Age	1500-600 BC	The Vedas were composed in this ancient history period, giving this age its name. The Vedic age started with the Aryan occupation of the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Widespread changes in social life occurred around 1000 BC after becoming acquainted with iron.
Religious Movements of Ancient India (Jainism and Buddhism)	600-322 BC	Mahavir and Gautam Buddha started a religious movement due to the varna system, caste system, and inequality in society. In this period, 16 Mahajanapadas were formed, and the most powerful among them was the Magadha Mahajanapada.
Mauryan Age	322-185 BC	Chandragupta Maurya established the Mauryan empire by defeating Dhanananda, the ruler of the Nanda dynasty, with the help of his Guru Chanakya Kautilya. King Ashoka was related to the Mauryan empire.
Foreign Invasion	183 BC – AD 320	India was invaded by Bactrians, Parthians, Sakas, and Kushanas during this period, and contact (trade) of Indians with Central Asia was established.
Sangam Age (South India)	65 BC – AD 250	In this period, Sangam literature was composed in South India. The Sangam was a voluntary organization of poets. South India, during the Sangam age, was ruled by three dynasties – the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas.
Gupta Period	AD 319-520	In the history of ancient India, this period is called the classical era. The real founder of the Gupta dynasty was Chandragupta I. This period is also called the Golden age of ancient India.
Rise of Small Kingdoms	AD 500-606	In this period, many kingdoms were established in North India. Five major powers emerged after the fall of the Guptas: the Maukharis, the Maitrakas, the Gaudas, the Hunas, and the Pushyabhutis established their independent kingdoms. The most famous ruler of this period was Harshavardhana. Due to the invasion of Hunas, his kingdom was divided into several small units.

Education and Literature in Ancient History

In Ancient History of India, education has held significant importance since ancient times, recognized as essential for both physical and spiritual upliftment, as well as for the effective fulfillment of various responsibilities.
The emphasis on education encompassed character building, understanding civic and social duties, and the preservation and dissemination of culture.
During the Rig Vedic period, the primary focus of education was the study of Vedic literature. As time progressed into the later Vedic period, the texts of the Brahmins became the central subjects of education.
The curriculum expanded during the Sutra era, with foreign travelers contributing to the inclusion of various subjects in ancient Indian literature.
Descriptions reveal that the educational curriculum comprised the study of 4 Vedas, 6 Vedangas, 14 Disciplines, 18 Crafts, 64 Arts, and more. Hiuen Tsang and Al-Biruni noted the prevalence of education in grammar and astrology in India.
A distinctive feature of the ancient Indian education system was the Gurukul system, where students resided in hostels connected to educational centers, known as Antevasi or Acharya Kulvasi.
The ancient education system lacked the practice of examinations and formal degrees. Temples played a crucial role in promoting education in Indian culture, with the Ghatika school associated with the Pallava temples serving as a notable example.

Some of the Premier Education Centers of India of India are as follows

Taxila (Takshashila)

Located in the Rawalpindi district of present-day Pakistan, Taxila was a major ancient center of education in Ancient History of India.
Renowned figures such as King Prasenjit of Kosala, Jivaka (the royal physician of Magadha), the eminent politician Chanakya, and the Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu received their education at Taxila.
Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Empire, received his military education at Taxila.

Nalanda

Founded by Gupta ruler Kumaragupta I, known as Mahendraditya, Nalanda University stands out among ancient history of Indian education centers.
The university boasted eight large and three hundred small lecture rooms, attracting students not only from India but also from China, Mongolia, Tibet, Korea, and Central Asia.
During the 7th century, Chinese scholars I Qing and Xuan Zang visited Nalanda, with Hiuen Tsang studying there for 18 months.
Shilabhadra served as the Vice-Chancellor during Hiuen Tsang’s time, and 1-Tsing prepared copies of 400 Sanskrit texts in the university’s library, Dharmaganj.

Vallabhi

Established by Maitrakvanshi ruler Bhattarak, Vallabhi was a renowned center of education and culture in Western India.
It served as a major hub for the education of Hinayana Buddhism, attracting scholars from various countries to engage in discussions and debates.

Vikramshila

Pala King Dharmapala founded the Mahavihara of Vikramshila, another significant university in Ancient History of India
Comprising six colleges, each equipped with a central hall and 108 teachers, Vikramshila was home to notable scholars like Dipankar Srigyan, who served as Vice-Chancellor.
Graduates were honored with titles by Pala rulers, with distinctions such as Pandit, Mahapandit, Upadhyaya, and Acharya marking different levels of scholarly achievement.
Unfortunately, in AD 1203, the Muslim invader Bakhtiyar Khilji devastated Vikramshila University, leading to the destruction of the institution and the massacre of monks.

Religion in Ancient History

In India, nature was personified and worshipped by man, due to which the Vedic religion or Brahmana religion developed in an influential manner.
Along with Brahmanism religion, Jainism and Buddhism also emerged in India. Christianity emerged in India around the AD first century, yet it could not spread much in ancient times.
Buddhism also gradually disappeared from the country. Some other religions also emerged and developed in ancient times, which are as follows-

Vaishnavism

Vaishnavism, one of the major forms of modern Hinduism, is characterized by devotion to the God Vishnu and his incarnations (avatars).
The first mention of this religion dates back to the sixth century BC. It is found in the Upanishads.
The earliest mention of Vasudeva, Devikaran comes from Panini’s Ashtadhyayi. Megasthenes mentions the worship of Krishna (Heracles) at Shurasena (Mathura).
Vasudev Krishna was considered an incarnation of the Vedic God Vishnu. Later, it was equated with Narayan. The worshippers of Narayan are called Pancharatrik.
The main deities of Pancharatra Vyuh are Vasudev, Lakshmi, Sankarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha.

Ten incarnations of Vishnu are mentioned in the Bhagavata sect, which are as follows

Matsya
Varaha
Kurma (turtle)
Narasimha
Vamana
Rama
Parashurama
Buddha
Krishna
Kalki (will incarnate in the future)

In South India, followers of Vaishnavism were revered as Alvar saints.

Early Alvar saints included names like Piyagai, Poodam, and Peya, while prominent figures such as Tirumangai, Periya Alvar, Andal, Nammalvar, Tirumalishai, and Madhur Kavi also emerged.
Andal, the sole female among the Alvars, was recognized as Krishna’s love interest.

Bhagavat Sampradaya

The Bhagavat Sampradaya emphasized the incarnation doctrine outlined in the Bhagavad Gita, particularly focusing on the worship of the four Vrishni heroes, including Vasudeva Krishna, known as Chaturvyuha.
Chaturvyuha Puja was first mentioned in the Vishnu Samhita, with evidence dating back to AD 1000 from Mora near Mathura.
The Chaturvyuha comprised Sankarshana, Pradyumna, Aniruddha, and Samba.

Shaivism

Shiva, referred to as Rudra in the Rig Veda, had evidence of worship in the Indus Valley Civilization and Vedic period.
The Atharva Veda mentions seven names of Shiva, while the Taittiriya Samhita and Svetashvara Upanishad discuss Shiva.
Linga worship was first clear in the Matsya Purana, and Megasthenes mentioned the worship of Dionysus (Shiva) in the fourth century.
The Vamana Purana mentioned four types of Shaiva communities: Pashupat, Kapalik, Kalamukh, and Lingayat or Veershaivism.
Pashupat: Considered the oldest Shaiva sect, founded by Lakulish.
Followers, called Pancharatriks, applied ashes on their heads and wore Rudraksha beads.
Kapalika: Known for its fierce and demonic nature, offering Sura and human sacrifices to Bhairav.
Followers practiced extreme rituals like drinking Surasundari, eating Jatajut, and applying cremation ashes.
Kalamukha: More extremist than Kapalika, mentioned as Mahavratdhar in Shiva Purana.
Lingayat or Veerashaivism: Prevalent in South India (Karnataka), worshippers focused on Shivling instead of idols.

Shaktism (Shakta Dharma)

Rig Veda’s 10th Mandala includes a Sukta on the worship of Shakti, known as Tantrik Devi Sukta.
Names like Uma, Parvati, Ambika, Hemvati, Rudrani, and Bhavani are found in Vedic literature.
Markandeya Purana extols the glory of the goddess.
Two classes of Shaktas are Kaulmargi and Samayachari, with Kaul Sadhaks emphasizing complete monism, recognizing no distinctions between opposites.
The Kaul Margis, followers of Shaktism, engage in Panchamkara worship, involving alcohol, meat, fish, mudra, and sex.
Shaktism places significant importance on Kundalini, a mystical power within its spiritual practices.

Sun Worship in Ancient History of India

Sun worship is evidenced in prehistoric cultures and the Harappan Civilization through symbols like Chakra, Swastik, and Kiran Mandal.
Rig Veda describes various characteristics of the Sun, and its worship is continued in later Vedic literature.
Sun worship persisted into the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, with Hiuen-Tsang detailing a Sun temple built by Shambh on the Chandrabhaga riverbanks.
The Vrihat Samhita mentions the establishment of the Saur dynasty in North India by the Magas, who authorized to install of Sun God idols in temples.
Mago, recognized by Al-Biruni, was hailed as a true worshipper of the Surya idol.
Historical inscriptions like the Mandsaur Inscription of Kumaragupta and the Indore copper plate of Skandagupta document Sun temple constructions.
The Hill Matrichet in Gwalior, as per the Hun king Mihirkul’s inscription, housed a Sun temple built by Mandsaur.
Harsha, too, was a devotee of Sun worship, as noted by Hiuen Tsang regarding the famous Sun temple at Pur (Multan) with a gold idol.
Renowned Sun worship centers include Modhera in Gujarat, Osia in Rajasthan, and Konark.

Science and Technology in Ancient History

Ancient India experienced significant progress in science and technology.
Astronomy developed due to the celestial significance of planets being considered deities.
The science of grammar and linguistics emerged as Brahmins and priests prioritized the correct pronunciation of Vedic hymns and mantras.
Starting in the third century BC, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine saw independent developments.
Ancient Indians developed three distinctive notation systems, including the decimal system, with the use of decimals starting in the fifth century AD.
Numerology, dating back to 500 BC, is evident in Ashoka’s third-century inscriptions. Indians made significant contributions to Algebra, inventing zero in the second century BC.
The brick buildings in Harappa indicate the people’s proficient knowledge of measurement and geometry in North-West India.
Apastamba applied practical geometry to construct sacrificial altars, detailing acute, obtuse, and right angles.
Baudhayana played a crucial role in presenting and developing geometry principles, including rules for converting a circle into a square and vice versa.
The value of Pi (π) was first calculated in Baudhayana’s formulas, with Aryabhatta providing its purest value.
Aryabhatta’s exploration of the triangle area led to the birth of trigonometry, with the Law of Sines of angles detailed in Aryabhatta’s Surya Siddhanta.
Brahmagupta, around the seventh century, presented formulas in Brahma Sphuta Siddhanta for circular and cyclic quadrilaterals, squares, rectangles, etc.
Mathematician Bhaskar’s Siddhanta Shiromani covers Lilavati, Algebra, Grahaganita, and Gola, introducing the Cyclic method to solve undecidable quadratic equations.
Bhaskaracharya, credited with giving zero its undivided status, theorized gravity before Newton.
Varahamihira, a sixth-century scholar, is recognized as the pioneer of astrology, composing Panchasiddhantika, Brihat Jataka, Brihat Samhita, and Laghu Jataka.
The Vrihat Samhita describes Yavanas as venerable, like sages, due to their role as the originators of astrology.
Indian texts mention five principles of astrology: Paitamah, Vashishtha, Surya, Polish, and Romak, with Romak and Polish attributed to Greek influence.
Maharishi Kanad (sixth century BC), founder of atomism and promoter of Vaiseshik philosophy, is credited with starting physics in India.
Ancient chemistry, known as Rasavidya or Rasashastra, is regulated by Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna, credited with the discovery of Mercury.
Significant progress in steel manufacturing marked advancements in technology and science.
The Atharva Veda mentions medicines, with principles and practices of Ayurveda outlined in its verses.
The principle of “Vishasya Vishmaudham,” poison as the antidote for poison, is mentioned in the Atharva Veda, serving as the basis for modern homeopathic medicine.
Renowned scholar Muni Atreya, from the famous university Takshashila, contributed to Ayurveda with the Atreya Samhita, emphasizing water therapy.
In the second century AD, Ayurvedic scholars Sushruta and Charak made significant contributions. Charaka Samhita, an encyclopedia of Indian medicine, is based on the teachings of Maharishi Aitreya.

Major Samvats in Ancient History

Vikram Samvat: A gap of 470 years is mentioned between Mahavira Nirvana and Vikram Samvat. Also known as Krit Samvat and Malav Samvat, related to Vikramaditya, it began in 57 BC.
Saka Samvat: Started by Vikramaditya after defeating his successors, marking the beginning in AD 78.
The present National Panchang of India is based on Saka Samvat.
Gupta Samvat: Used in Gupta kings’ writings, it was founded by Chandragupta I in AD 319.
Vallabhi Samvat: Started by King Vallabh 241 years after the Saka era, dating back to AD 319.
Harsh Samvat: Related to Harshvardhan, it finds mention in the writings of Harsha, contemporary Uttaragupta kings, and Nepali writings, with a probable beginning around AD 606.

Prelims Facts on Ancient History

Which ruler of Bengal founded an ancient university named Vikramashila?

– Dharmapala /CGPSC (Pre) 2011)

Which date of 365 days a normal year based on the Gregorian Calendar corresponds to the first Chaitra of the Rashtriya Panchang calendar based on Saka Samvat?

– 22nd March or 21st March (IAS (Pre) 2014)

The temples of Khajuraho were built by the rulers of which dynasty?

– Chandel IMPPSC (Pre) 2014]

The historical work ‘Gaudavaho’ like Kalhanas

Rajatarangini was written by – Vakpati |JPSC (Pre) 2021]

In which rock-cut caves, the eleven Bodhisattva images is depicted?

– Kanheri [UPPSC (Pre) 2017]

Who is the protagonist of the play ‘Malvikagnimitra’ written by Kalidasa?

– Agnimitra [UPPSC (Pre) 1998]

The cave temple built by the Rashtrakutas in the Ellora mountains are located in

– Aurangabad (Maharashtra) [UPPSC (Pre) 2009]

The famous book of ‘Panchtantra was originally written by whom?

– Vishnu Sharma IMPPSC (Pre) 2013]

Which is the largest and the tallest surviving temple in Orissa? – Lingaraja temple

[UPPSC (Pre) 2010]

‘Lilavati’ a treatise on mathematics was written by

– Bhaskaracharya [UPPSC (Pre) 2017]

Sonagiri, the highest among 103 Jain temples, lies in the proximity of – Datia

[UPPSC (Pre) 2005]

Who is considered to be the first lawgiver of India? – Manu

[UPPSC (Mains) 2004]

In which epic it was told ‘what is here is found elsewhere, but if not here is found nowhere else

– Mahabharata [UPPSC (Pre) 1992]

At which place does the Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain rock-cut caves co-exist? – Ellora

[UPPSC (Mains) 2002, 2006]

The Panchasiddhantika of Varahamihira is based on which astronomy? – Greek astronomy

– [UPPSC (Pre) 2014)

With reference to the History of ancient India, Bhavbhuti, Hastimalla, and K Shemeshvara were famous

– Playwrights IIAS (Pre) 2021)

The famous Cave temple of Elephanta are ascribed to which dynasty?

– Rashtrakutas

TUKPSC (Pre) 2010, UPPSC (Mains) 2009/
The rock-cut caves in Western India are located in

– Nasik, Ellora and Ajanta (IAS (Pre) 1993)

Which dynasty constructed the Ellora Kailasa Temple?

– Rashtrakutas [UPPSC (Mains) 2005

Sonagiri, the highest among 103 Jain temples, lies in the proximity of

– Datia [UPPSC (Pre) 2005]

NaimiSharanya famous pilgrimage is located in which district?

– Sitapur [UPPSC (Pre) 2002)

With reference to the cultural history of India, the term Panchayatan refers to

– A style of temple construction [IAS (Pre) 2014]

Where is the famous temple of Jagannath located?

– Orissa [MPPSC (Pre) 1995)

The temple of Bhubaneshwar and Puri was built in which style?

– Nagara Style [UPPSC (Pre) 1997)

The idols of Lord Jagannath, Subhadra, and Balbhadra in Sanctum Sanctorum at Jagannath Puri Temple are made up of

– Wood ICGPSC (Pre) 2019)

The Seven Ratha Temple of Mahabalipuram was built by which ruler?

– Pallavas [UPPSC (Mains) 2014)

The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani is one of the most famous and oft illustrated painting at

– Ajanta (IAS (Pre) 2017)

Frequently Asked Questions on Ancient History

Q: What are the aspects of the Ancient History of India?

A: Ancient India encompassed a rich tapestry of society, religion, and culture. Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism emerged as prominent religions, influencing rituals, temples, and scriptures. Vedic texts, Ashoka’s edicts, and cave art reflected spiritual and societal aspects, leaving a lasting impact on art, governance, and philosophy.

Q: What were the societal and religious dimensions of the Ancient History of India?

A: Religion played a central role in ancient India, with Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism as key spiritual frameworks. Rituals, temples, and scriptures were crucial elements. The society was marked by diverse ethnic, linguistic, regional, economic, religious, class, and caste groups. Urban-rural differences and gender distinctions were also prevalent.

Q: What are some interesting facts about the Ancient History of India?

A: In ancient India, slavery did not exist. India is credited with advancements in math, including algebra, trigonometry, and calculus, as well as the discovery of zero. The oldest school of medicine originated in ancient India, showcasing the civilization’s contributions to various fields.

Q: How did Ancient India contribute to modern society?

A: Ancient India served as the cradle of human civilization, contributing to science, medicine, mathematics, metaphysics, religion, and astronomy. Many foundations of modern society, such as advanced mathematics and the oldest school of medicine, originated in ancient India.

Q: What are the aspects of India’s diversity?

A: India is characterized by astounding diversity in ethnic, linguistic, regional, economic, religious, class, and caste groups. Urban-rural differences and gender distinctions are prevalent, creating a complex and multifaceted societal landscape.

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UPSC NCERT Notes – Ancient History – Various Aspects of Ancient India