Colonialism in China – UPSC World History Notes

The history of colonialism and foreign interference in China is marked by significant events and periods of change. Here is a summary of key developments during China’s colonial history:

1. Early Contact with Europeans:
   • China was initially discovered by the Portuguese in 1514, leading to the establishment of trade relations.
   • The Portuguese set up a trading center in Canton in 1557, but China followed a policy of seclusion, limiting foreign trade.
2. Opium Wars and Opening to the World:
   • The Opium Wars in the 19th century forced China to open up to the world in terms of trade, foreign presence, and diplomatic relations.
3. Manchu Dynasty Rule:
   • The Manchu Dynasty ruled China from the 1640s to 1911.
4. Period of Foreign Interference and Civil War:
   • From the 1840s until the rise of the Maoists in 1949, China experienced a period of foreign interference, civil war, and disintegration.
5. Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864):
   • The Taiping Rebellion was a significant religious-political movement that was ultimately suppressed by provincial armies in China.
6. Loss of Territory to Russia:
   • China lost territory north of the Amur River to Russia in 1858.
7. Japanese Invasion (1894-1895):
   • Japan invaded China in 1894-1895, bringing parts of China under its control, with a focus on Manchuria, which came under Japanese economic influence.
8. Boxer Rebellion (1899-1900):
   • The Boxer Rebellion was a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising in China. British Indian soldiers were deployed to suppress the rebellion.
9. Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905):
   • Japan emerged victorious from the Russo-Japanese War and replaced Russia in areas under its control in China.
10. End of the Manchu Dynasty (1911):
    • The Manchu Dynasty was overthrown in 1911, and a republic was proclaimed.
11. Warlord Era (1916-1928):
    • From 1916 to 1928, China experienced a period of instability and a lack of central authority. Warlords with private armies took control of different provinces during this era.
12. Rise of the Kuomintang (KMT):
    • The Kuomintang (KMT), or Nationalist Party, rose to prominence during the Warlord Era, ultimately ending it in 1928. Leaders such as Sun Yat Sen and later Chiang Kai Shek played pivotal roles.
13. Civil War and Communist Victory (1949):
    • The KMT and the Chinese Communist Party engaged in a civil war, with the Communist Party emerging victorious in 1949.
    • This led to the establishment of a communist form of government in mainland China, while Chiang Kai Shek’s KMT government operated in exile in Taiwan.

These events and transitions marked China’s transformation from a period of foreign interference and internal strife to the establishment of the People’s Republic of China under communist rule.

Details of events in China

China’s initial interactions with European nations, such as the Portuguese, marked the beginning of trade relations. However, China adopted a policy of seclusion due to European interference and the activities of Christian missionaries. Here is a timeline of key events in China during this period:

• 1514: China is discovered by the Portuguese.
• 1557: The Portuguese established a trading center in Canton (Guangzhou), facilitating trade between China and Europe.
• 18th Century: By the 1730s, all major European nations were engaged in trade with China. The United States began trading with China in 1784.
• Seclusion Policy: China implemented a policy of seclusion due to concerns about foreign interference and the influence of Christian missionaries. As a result, China limits trade with foreign nations and permits it only through designated Chinese traders, primarily via the port of Canton.

China’s seclusion policy aimed to control and limit foreign interactions within the country, particularly with European powers and their expanding influence in East Asia. This policy remained in effect for a significant period, but it would eventually be challenged by external forces, leading to significant changes in China’s history.

Two Opium Wars (1840-2 and 1858)

The Opium Wars were a significant series of conflicts in the 19th century that had far-reaching consequences for China. Here is a detailed explanation of the two Opium Wars and the loss of Chinese territory to Russia in 1858:

First Opium War (1839-1842):

• The British, facing a trade deficit with China, began exchanging opium for Chinese tea, silk, and other goods.
• The Chinese government, led by the Manchu dynasty, opposed this opium trade and took action to halt it, leading to tensions between Britain and China.
• In 1839, a dispute involving the seizure and destruction of opium led to the outbreak of the First Opium War.
• The war resulted in a British victory. The Treaty of Nanking (1842) concluded the conflict.
• Key terms of the Treaty of Nanking included:
  • Britain’s acquisition of Hong Kong.
  • Trade concessions and the opening of several major Chinese ports to British trade.
  • Reduced Chinese tariffs on British imports.
  • Granting extraterritorial rights to British citizens in China, meaning they would be subject to British law.
• The treaty effectively forced China to accept free trade with the West and make significant concessions.

Second Opium War (1856-1860):

• In the decades following the First Opium War, other European nations, including France and the United States, signed their own trade agreements with China.
• Many of these nations sought more favorable terms and increased access to Chinese markets.
• The Second Opium War began in 1856, with a series of incidents and conflicts between China and foreign powers.
• The war culminated with the signing of the Treaty of Tientsin (1856) and the Convention of Peking (1860).
• Key terms of these treaties included:
  • Further opening of Chinese ports to foreign trade and residence.
  • Rights of transit for foreign ships on Chinese rivers.
  • Freedom of movement for foreigners within China.
  • Legalization of the opium trade.
  • Guarantees of safety for Christian missionaries and the right to establish churches in China.

Loss of Territory to Russia (1858):

• In 1858, China was embroiled in various conflicts, including the Second Opium War and the Taiping Rebellion.
• Taking advantage of China’s weakened state, Russia threatened to attack and force China to cede a substantial amount of territory north of the Amur River.
• This territorial loss marked a significant gain for Russia and a loss for China.

The Opium Wars and the loss of territory to Russia were key events that contributed to China’s increased subjugation to foreign powers and the erosion of its sovereignty. These events had long-lasting effects on China’s history, including the eventual carving out of foreign-controlled spheres of influence within the country.

Manchu Dynasty and Warlord Era

The Manchu Dynasty and the subsequent Warlord Era are important periods in China’s history, marked by changes in governance and the erosion of central authority. Here’s a closer look at these periods:

Manchu Dynasty (1640s-1911):

• The Manchu Dynasty, also known as the Qing Dynasty, ruled China for over two centuries, starting in the 1640s.
• During their rule, China largely followed a policy of seclusion or isolation from the outside world. China was seen as self-sufficient and had a positive balance of trade with other nations.
• The dynasty maintained its rule with a generally stable internal environment.

Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864):

• The Taiping Rebellion was a significant rebellion that occurred in southern China during the 19th century.
• It was characterized by both religious and political motives, with the Taiping rebels seeking to establish a Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace through armed rebellion.
• The Taiping movement had some unique characteristics, including demands for shared property, gender equality, and the replacement of traditional Chinese religions with a form of Christianity.
• While the Taiping Rebellion was eventually suppressed, it had a lasting impact on China’s political landscape.

Warlord Era (1916-1928):

• The Warlord Era refers to a period in China’s history when central authority was weakened, and regional warlords, often provincial military leaders, gained significant power and control.
• It began in 1916, following the abdication of the last Qing emperor and the collapse of central authority.
• During this era, different provinces were effectively ruled by individual warlords who had their own armies and exercised authority over their territories.
• The Warlord Era was marked by political fragmentation, a lack of centralized governance, and regional conflicts.

These historical periods played a role in shaping the political landscape of China, with the Warlord Era representing a significant challenge to central authority. The eventual emergence of the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) and the Chinese Communist Party would play a crucial role in reunifying the country and shaping its modern history.

These five major events significantly shaped the course of China’s history during this period:

1. Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895):
   • The conflict arose primarily over the control of Korea, which was then under China’s influence. Japan emerged victorious, leading to significant territorial and political changes.
   • Korea was recognized as an independent state, and Taiwan (Formosa) was occupied by Japan. The Senkaku Islands in the South China Sea also came under Japanese control.
   • Manchuria, with its valuable coal and mineral resources, fell under Japanese economic influence, challenging Russian interests in the region.
2. Boxer Rebellion (1899-1900):
   • This rebellion was a response to foreign interference in China’s political, economic, and religious affairs. It was particularly directed against the influence of foreign powers in China.
   • The rebellion was crushed by a coalition of international forces, and Empress Dowager Cixi was compelled to pay significant reparations for damages to foreign property.
   • The Boxer Protocol allowed foreign powers to station troops in China for the protection of their citizens.
3. Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905):
   • Fought mainly over control of Manchuria, Japan emerged victorious, significantly expanding its territorial holdings and establishing itself as a major world power.
   • Japan gained influence in South Manchuria, acquired Port Arthur, converted Korea into a protectorate, and took control of the Liaodong Peninsula.
   • Russia ceded half of the Sakhalin Islands to Japan, further strengthening Japan’s strategic position in the region.
4. Emergence of Western-Educated Chinese Youth:
   • Chinese students who had received education in Western countries returned to China with radical revolutionary ideas, seeking to overthrow the Manchu Dynasty and implement democratic reforms.
   • Sun Yat Sen, a prominent figure among these intellectuals, played a key role in establishing the Nationalist Party (KMT) or Kuomintang.
5. Establishment of the Republic of China (1911):
   • The revolution of 1911 led to the overthrow of the Manchu Dynasty and the proclamation of the Republic of China.
   • Yuan Shih Kai, a military general, assumed the presidency. While the new government aimed for democratic reforms, it faced opposition from provincial armies.
   • When Yuan declared himself Emperor in 1915, it triggered resistance, leading to his removal from power and the onset of the Warlord Era (1916-1928).

These events mark a period of significant political and territorial transformation in China, setting the stage for further developments and challenges.

World War I (1914-1919):

• Japan seized additional Chinese territory, including the Kiachow islands and Shantung Province, during World War I (1914-1919).
• In 1921, during the Washington Conference, Japan agreed to relinquish control of these areas. In return, there were limitations imposed on the presence of U.S., British, and French naval forces in the Pacific Ocean.

Warlord Era (1916-1928):

• The Warlord Era, spanning from 1916 to 1928, was a tumultuous period in China’s history.
• China fragmented into numerous states, each controlled by a warlord who commanded a private army. These warlords often engaged in power struggles and conflicts with one another.
• The Warlord Era brought about widespread chaos in China, and it was the ordinary farmers who bore the brunt of the hardships and instability. The disintegration of central authority led to significant socio-political upheaval.

May 4th Movement (1919):

• The May 4th Movement in 1919 was a significant cultural and political movement in China.
• It was initiated primarily by Chinese youth who were discontented with warlord rule and the conservative aspects of Chinese culture.
• During this movement, students and intellectuals organized mass demonstrations and protests.
• The movement laid the groundwork for the founding of the Chinese Communist Party in 1921. The Chinese Communist Party, which was sympathetic to the plight of peasants, became an influential force advocating for their rights.
• At the same time, the Kuomintang (KMT) under the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek was consolidating its military strength. The KMT’s objective was to end the rule of warlords and unify China.
• By the late 1920s, KMT had successfully achieved its goals of suppressing the warlords and uniting the country, but it was also vehemently opposed to the communist ideology of the Chinese Communist Party. The two parties had conflicting interests, particularly regarding issues like land redistribution, as the KMT was more aligned with landlords’ interests.
• In 1927, the KMT, having a stronger military presence, initiated campaigns to suppress the Chinese Communist Party and undermine its influence.

This period marked a significant ideological divide between the KMT and the Chinese Communist Party, ultimately leading to internal conflicts and civil strife in China.

Kuomintang (KMT) and Sun Yat-sen:

• The Kuomintang (KMT) was established in 1912 by Dr. Sun Yat-sen, who returned to China after the successful 1911 revolution that led to the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty.
• The KMT’s primary goal was to create a united, democratic, and modern China. While the KMT was not initially aligned with communist ideology, it was willing to collaborate with Communist forces in the early stages.
• Dr. Sun Yat-sen’s policies were based on three fundamental principles: Nationalism, Democracy, and Land Reforms.
  • Nationalism aimed to end foreign interference in China’s internal affairs and work towards building a strong, independent nation.
  • Democracy sought to eliminate the influence of warlords and establish a system of governance that represented the will of the people.
  • Land Reforms, although not advocating for immediate land confiscation, promised long-term efforts towards redistributing land in favor of peasants, promoting their economic well-being, and reducing rents.
• Dr. Sun Yat-sen partially achieved his goals. In 1912, he managed to establish a military government in Canton, located in Southern China, with the support of regional warlords. However, he faced challenges in extending his influence beyond Southern China due to the lack of a formidable KMT military force.
• His alliance with Southern Warlords eventually dissolved in 1921. Consequently, he had to leave Canton and sought assistance from Soviet Russia to further the unification of China. Soviet support played a crucial role in modernizing and training the KMT’s military.
• Dr. Sun Yat-sen successfully ignited a spirit of nationalism and gained recognition as an intellectual statesman. However, he was unable to completely eliminate foreign interference or transform China into a dominant world power. Tragically, he passed away at the relatively young age of 59 in 1925, after which Chiang Kai-shek assumed leadership of the KMT.

Chiang Kai-shek:

• Following Dr. Sun Yat-sen’s passing in 1925, Chiang Kai-shek, a leader with military training, took over the reins of the Kuomintang (KMT).
• Chiang Kai-shek played a pivotal role in the development and expansion of the KMT’s armed forces, largely with the assistance of the Soviet Union.
• While Chiang Kai-shek studied the organizational structure and tactics of the Communist Party and Red Army in Soviet Russia, his ideological stance leaned towards the right wing. He aligned himself with the capitalist class and held pro-capitalist beliefs.
• In 1925, Chiang Kai-shek initiated a purge within the KMT, leading to the expulsion of all communist members. This move marked a departure from the more tolerant approach of his predecessor, Sun Yat-sen, towards communist elements.

Chinese Communist Party (1921+)

The period from 1921 onwards marked significant developments in Chinese history, particularly in relation to the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party:

1. Formation of the Chinese Communist Party (1921): The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded by leftist intellectuals in 1921, as a response to the warlord era and the challenges faced by peasants and workers. The CCP aimed to address the needs and concerns of these groups.
2. Northern March (1926): The KMT, along with the CCP, initiated the Northern March, a military campaign aimed at combating the warlords who controlled different regions of China. The campaign was an effort to unify the country.
3. Purification Movement (1927): After the KMT’s success in the Northern March, the KMT initiated the Purification Movement. This campaign targeted the CCP and resulted in the massacre of workers and peasant leaders, as well as CCP members. The CCP was severely weakened as a result.
4. KMT Government Issues: Although the KMT emerged victorious, the subsequent government was marked by inefficiency and corruption. A nexus formed between landlords, industrialists, and government officials, leading to the exploitation of the poor. Workers experienced poor working conditions, and peasants were discontented due to the lack of land reforms, high taxes, and forced labor.
5. Chinese Communist Party’s Survival: Despite being severely weakened by KMT actions, the CCP was not entirely eliminated. It found support among peasants and workers, who were disenchanted with the KMT’s government.
6. Encirclement Campaigns (1930-1934): The KMT initiated the Encirclement Campaigns in an effort to destroy the CCP. These campaigns aimed to encircle and eliminate the CCP. However, the CCP managed to escape a KMT encirclement in 1934, known as the Long March, covering a distance of approximately 6,000 miles in one year and winning support from peasants.
7. Japanese Aggression and Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945): Japan’s invasion of Manchuria in 1931 led to a series of localized incidents of Japanese aggression in China. However, the KMT continued to target the CCP instead of focusing on Japanese aggression. The full-scale invasion by Japan in 1937 marked the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War. During this conflict, the CCP’s guerrilla warfare strategy allowed them to gain ground, increase their support base, and be seen as patriotic.
8. Resumption of Civil War and Chinese Communist Victory (1945-1949): After World War II, civil war resumed between the CCP and KMT. The conflict became part of the Cold War, with the United States supporting the KMT and the USSR supporting the CCP. In 1949, the CCP, under the leadership of Mao Zedong, emerged victorious and established the People’s Republic of China, while Chiang Kai-shek’s KMT government retreated to Taiwan.

This transition marked a significant turning point in Chinese history, with the CCP taking control of mainland China and establishing a communist state, while the KMT continued to govern Taiwan.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What is colonialism in the context of China’s history?

Colonialism in China refers to the historical period when foreign powers, primarily European countries and Japan, exerted control and influence over various parts of China. This occurred from the 19th century until the mid-20th century. The colonization of China involved economic exploitation, political dominance, and cultural imposition by external powers.

2. Which foreign powers were involved in colonizing China?

Several foreign powers participated in the colonization of China, including Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and Japan. These countries engaged in activities such as establishing spheres of influence, acquiring concessions, and controlling trade routes, contributing to the fragmentation and weakening of the Chinese state during this period.

3. How did colonialism impact China economically?

Colonialism had profound economic consequences for China. Foreign powers imposed unequal treaties, leading to economic exploitation and loss of territory. The opium trade forced concessions, and extraterritoriality were key elements that severely affected China’s economic sovereignty. This period witnessed the depletion of resources and the extraction of wealth by colonial powers.

4. What role did the Opium Wars play in China’s colonization?

The Opium Wars (1839-1842 and 1856-1860) were pivotal events in China’s colonization. Triggered by disputes over trade imbalances and the opium trade, these wars resulted in humiliating defeats for China. The Treaty of Nanking (1842) and the Treaty of Tientsin (1856) compelled China to cede territories, open more ports to foreign trade, and pay indemnities, significantly weakening its position against colonial powers.

5. How did Chinese resistance movements emerge during the colonial period?

Numerous resistance movements emerged as a response to colonialism in China. The Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901) is a notable example, where a secret society, the Boxers, led an uprising against foreign influence. Despite facing defeat, such movements laid the groundwork for later anti-colonial sentiments and contributed to the eventual overthrow of imperial rule in the early 20th century.

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