Decolonization in Africa – UPSC World History Notes

Decolonization in Africa represents a transformative period that unfolded in the mid-20th century, marking the end of colonial rule and the emergence of independent African nations. This process was driven by a combination of factors, including the rise of nationalist movements, global shifts in power dynamics following World War II, and the moral imperative to dismantle the oppressive legacy of imperialism. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, a wave of African nations gained independence from European colonial powers, and borders were redrawn to reflect a more authentic expression of national identity. However, decolonization was not without challenges, as newly independent nations grappled with political instability, economic uncertainties, and the enduring impact of colonial-era divisions. The legacy of decolonization continues to shape contemporary Africa, influencing issues of governance, economic development, and cultural identity.

The impact of colonialism on Africa was indeed significant and multifaceted. Here’s an overview of how colonialism influenced the continent:

a) Elitism and Exploitation: Colonial powers, often comprised of white settlers, established themselves as the ruling elite and exploited the native black populations. This exploitation took various forms, including forced labor and land dispossession, and it led to stark economic and social disparities.

b) Slavery: While the transatlantic slave trade had largely ended by the 19th century, colonialism introduced new forms of forced labor and exploitation, which continued to affect African populations.

c) Mass Killings and Violent Suppression: Many colonial powers resorted to violence and brutal suppression to maintain control over their colonies. The forced labor practices and violent actions by colonial authorities resulted in the deaths of countless Africans.

d) Divide and Rule: The colonial “divide and rule” policy deliberately sowed divisions among different ethnic and tribal groups. These divisions created lasting tensions that persisted in some post-colonial African nations, contributing to conflicts and political instability.

e) Neglect of Education and Healthcare: Colonial powers often neglected investments in education and healthcare infrastructure for the African population. This lack of investment left a legacy of underdevelopment in these critical areas.

f) Economic Exploitation: African resources were systematically extracted and exported to the benefit of colonial powers, leaving African economies heavily dependent on the export of raw materials. This economic structure impeded industrialization and diversification of economies.

The impact of colonialism was complex, and its consequences continue to be felt across the African continent. Decolonization and the subsequent struggle for independence marked a turning point, but the legacy of colonialism still influences political, economic, and social dynamics in Africa today.

Decolonization in Africa was influenced by a combination of factors, as you’ve mentioned. Here’s a more detailed look at these factors:

Nationalist Movements:

a) Pre-WWII Nationalism: Before World War II, nationalist movements were relatively weak in most African colonies. Only a few countries, like India, Vietnam, and the East Indies, had developed strong nationalist movements.

b) Impact of WWII: World War II had a profound impact on African nationalism. African soldiers who fought in the war witnessed the contrast between the colonial world and the democratic ideals for which they were fighting. They were exposed to anti-aggression sentiments, which led them to oppose colonial rule in their homelands.

c) Post-WWII Nationalism: African nationalism gained momentum after 1945, partly because many Africans were educated in Western countries like the United States and Britain. Exposure to the ideas of racial discrimination and colonialism fueled their desire for independence.

World War II:

a) Japanese Successes: The success of Japan in challenging European powers changed the perception that it was impossible to defeat colonial powers. Some Asian leaders cooperated with Japan, hoping it would accelerate the end of European colonialism in their countries.

b) Resistance and Guerrilla Tactics: Some European colonies resisted Japanese invasions during the war. They developed guerrilla warfare tactics, which they later used when the Europeans tried to regain control after Japan’s defeat. This resistance strengthened their resolve for independence.

c) Impact of the Atlantic Charter: The Atlantic Charter, signed in 1941, stated that nations should have the right to self-rule and should not expand territorially by occupying other nations. This document, combined with European policies and propaganda during the war, encouraged colonial populations to expect independence post-war.

d) Economic and Military Weakness of Europe: Europe was weakened economically and militarily by World War II. This shift in the balance of power compelled European colonial powers, such as Britain, to reconsider their colonial policies and eventually grant independence as nationalist movements gained strength.

Outside Pressures:

a) United States: The United States, influenced by its colonial past and the desire to contain the spread of communism in former colonies, was somewhat sympathetic to the decolonization cause. The U.S. opposed Winston Churchill’s argument that the “self-government” of the Atlantic Charter was only intended for European peoples.

b) UN and USSR: The United Nations and the Soviet Union consistently criticized imperialism and colonialism. The USSR, as a proponent of anti-imperialism, supported freedom struggles in the colonies and opposed colonial powers.

The combination of these factors, along with the influence of nationalist leaders and indigenous movements, led to the decolonization of African nations. Britain’s experience in Africa during decolonization was influenced by these global and local dynamics, ultimately resulting in the end of colonial rule on the continent.

The decolonization of the British Empire in Africa was driven by various factors, and education played a significant role in this process. Here’s a more detailed look at the reasons for decolonization in the British Empire in Africa:

Education:

a) Education Penetration: In British Africa, there was a relatively higher level of penetration of education compared to other European colonies in Africa. The British colonial authorities established educational systems that, over time, led to the spread of formal education across the continent.

African Nationalism: a) Rise of African Nationalism: Education played a pivotal role in the rise of African nationalism. Western-style education imparted ideas of liberty, equality, and freedom, fostering a sense of political consciousness among Africans. This education raised their awareness of racial discrimination and the injustices of colonial rule.

b) Working-Class Receptivity: African nationalism found fertile ground among the working class, particularly in urban areas. Workers in towns and cities, who were exposed to Western educational ideas and often experienced the worst aspects of colonial exploitation, became a major force of resistance against colonialism.

c) Post-World War II Weakness: After World War II, Britain was economically and militarily weakened. The cost of maintaining colonial control became increasingly burdensome. Furthermore, the global context had changed, with the anti-imperialist sentiment growing stronger.

d) Commonwealth Relations: Britain, recognizing the growing strength of the Commonwealth countries, sought to maintain a good relationship with its former colonies. Granting independence to these nations was seen as a way to foster goodwill within the Commonwealth.

These factors, including the impact of education and the rise of African nationalism, played a crucial role in the decolonization of the British Empire in Africa. The changing global dynamics and the economic challenges Britain faced after World War II further accelerated the process of independence for African nations.

The British policy of decolonization after World War II can be divided into two main phases:

1. 1945-1951: During this period, the Labour Party was in power in Britain. The Labour government was generally willing to grant independence to its colonies. They believed that, even after granting independence, they could maintain British economic influence through the framework of the Commonwealth of Nations. This approach can be described as a form of neo-colonialism, where formal independence was granted, but economic and political ties were retained.
2. 1951-1957: After 1951, Britain shifted its policy to a more gradual approach. They began moving the colonies toward sovereign rule in a step-by-step and incremental manner. This policy involved giving the colonies greater self-government and gradually preparing them for full independence. This approach was seen as a way to allow Africans to gain experience in governance. However, it often required protests and, in some cases, even violent struggles for independence as the pace of decolonization was slower.

Overall, the British policy of decolonization was marked by a transition from an initial willingness to grant independence with the belief in maintaining influence through the Commonwealth to a more gradual approach that involved a step-wise transfer of power to the colonies. The specific approach in each colony could vary depending on various factors and local conditions.

In the period leading up to 1957, British policy towards decolonization in West Africa, East Africa, and Central Africa exhibited distinct approaches:

West Africa:

• Demographic Profile: West Africa had relatively few European settlers, which made the process of independence smoother.
• Pro-Independence Stance: Britain was generally more inclined towards granting independence in West Africa due to the lower presence of European settlers.
• Relative Ease of Independence: Independence was achieved more easily and generally peacefully in West Africa.

East & Central Africa:

• Demographic Profile: East Africa had a higher concentration of European settlers, and Central Africa had the maximum concentration. This demographic composition presented a different challenge to the process of decolonization.
• Delayed Independence: Britain delayed independence in East and Central Africa where European settlers constituted a significant percentage of the population. The settlers had the numbers and resources to suppress African struggles for independence, making it feasible to maintain a stable pro-British government.
• Settlers’ Desire for British Presence: European settlers in these regions desired the continued presence of the British to ensure the continuation of their social and economic dominance, as well as for the safety of their lives and property.
• Multi-racial Government: Even when Britain considered independence as an option, they emphasized the importance of establishing a multi-racial government with adequate representation for Asians and European settlers.

Post-1957: Wind of Change:

• The “Wind of Change” signified the realization on the part of the British that resisting independence in Africa was no longer feasible. This was due to the strengthening of Black African nationalism and Arab nationalism.
• Britain’s influence had also decreased in Northeast Africa, and it was weakened after its loss in the Suez War of 1956.
• From 1957 to 1963, there was a significant shift in British policy towards granting independence to colonies in East and Central Africa.

This distinction in British policy was primarily driven by the demographic composition of each region and the presence of European settlers, which influenced the approach taken towards decolonization.

British Decolonization in West Africa:

1. Gold Coast (1957):
   • Independence Struggle: Before 1951, leaders in the Gold Coast initiated an independence movement through various means like boycotts of foreign goods and engaging in violent demonstrations and strikes.
   • Constitutional Changes: In response to the pressure, a new constitution was introduced, and elections were conducted with universal adult franchise in 1952. This led to the establishment of self-government, although full independence was not granted at this stage.
   • Experience in Governance: From 1952 to 1957, African leaders, under the leadership of the Western-educated Prime Minister Nkrumah, gained valuable experience in governance.
   • Full Independence: In 1957, the Gold Coast, renamed Ghana, became the first African colony to achieve full independence, with Nkrumah becoming the first President.
2. Nigeria (1960):
   • Special Challenges: Nigeria, being rich in oil, faced unique challenges due to its large territorial size and demographic divisions among its three main ethnic groups—Muslims in the North and two other tribes in the Western and Eastern regions respectively.
   • Leadership and General Strike: Western-educated leader Azikiwe successfully led a mass general strike in 1945, which prompted the British to begin preparations for Nigeria’s gradual path towards independence.
   • Federal Constitution: In 1954, a new constitution was introduced, establishing a federation with legislative assemblies for the three regions, each dominated by one of the three major ethnic groups.
   • Attainment of Independence: Nigeria achieved full independence in 1960.
3. Sierra Leone and the Gambia:
   • Peaceful Independence: Similarly, by 1961, Sierra Leone and Gambia gained independence in a relatively peaceful manner.

The process of decolonization in West Africa was characterized by various movements, constitutional changes, and the emergence of strong leaders, ultimately leading to the attainment of independence for these nations.

British Decolonization in East Africa:

1. Tanzania (1961):
   • Leadership of Dr. Nyerere: In the East African British colony of Tanganyika, Dr. Nyerere spearheaded the independence movement. He adopted a reconciliatory approach towards the White population and assured them of fair treatment under Black majority rule in the future.
   • Independence of Tanganyika: Tanganyika gained full independence in 1961.
   • Formation of Tanzania: In 1964, Zanzibar Island was united with Tanganyika to form the modern-day nation of Tanzania.
2. Uganda (1962):
   • Challenges Due to Tribal Rivalry: The process of attaining independence in Uganda was delayed due to tribal rivalries. The tribal leader of Buganda objected to the idea of a democratic form of government.
   • Federal Form of Government: A solution was reached through the introduction of a constitution that established a federal system of government. This arrangement granted the tribal leader of Buganda special powers.
   • Independence of Uganda: In 1962, Uganda achieved independence, with Dr. Obote becoming the first Prime Minister.
3. Kenya (1963):
   • Challenges of Reconciliation: Kenya presented a significant challenge for the British due to the need to reconcile the interests of the White settlers with those of the Black majority. The White settlers vehemently opposed Black majority rule and received support from influential business interests in Britain.
   • Mau Mau Rebellion: The Mau Mau Secret Society led a violent campaign against British rule. In response, a state of emergency was declared in 1952, and British troops were dispatched. The rebellion was effectively suppressed by 1960.
   • Leadership of Jomo Kenyatta: Jomo Kenyatta, a highly respected leader of Kenya, advocated for a moderate approach. He was incarcerated from 1952 to 1960.
   • Change in British Policy: British policy towards Kenya shifted after 1957, leading to the granting of independence in 1963.
   • Jomo Kenyatta as Prime Minister: Jomo Kenyatta assumed the role of the first Prime Minister and pursued a policy of reconciliation between the White and Black populations post-independence.

The decolonization process in East Africa involved various challenges, including tribal rivalries, violent resistance movements, and the need for reconciliation between different ethnic and racial groups. Despite these complexities, these nations ultimately achieved independence.

British Decolonization in Central Africa:

1. Attempts at Delaying Independence – Central African Federation:
   • The colonies in Central Africa were predominantly under the domination of White settlers. These settlers, supported by influential business interests in Britain, persuaded Winston Churchill in 1953 to establish the Central African Federation. This federation included all British colonies in Central Africa – Nyasaland, North Rhodesia, and South Rhodesia. The primary aim was to prolong White dominance in Central Africa.
2. Response of Africans to Federation:
   • The Black population responded with violent protests, demanding Black majority rule. This led to the declaration of a state of emergency in 1959.
3. The breakup of Federation:
   • In 1963, the Central African Federation was dissolved, as Nyasaland and North Rhodesia no longer wished to be part of it. By 1961-62, new constitutions had been introduced in Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia. Consequently, they gained independence as Malawi and Zambia, respectively.
4. Zimbabwe:
   • Situation in Zimbabwe (Southern Rhodesia):
     • Southern Rhodesia posed the greatest challenge due to deeply entrenched White opposition to Black rule. The White population in Southern Rhodesia vehemently opposed any form of governance shared with the Black majority.
   • Britain-White Settlers Standoff:
     • At the time of Zambia and Malawi’s independence, Britain was prepared to grant independence to Southern Rhodesia on the condition that Whites allowed at least one-third of parliamentary seats to be held by Blacks through proposed constitutional changes. However, the Rhodesia Front, a white supremacist party led by Prime Minister Smith, rejected the British offer. In 1965, the Whites in Southern Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence without British consent (though they maintained allegiance to the British Crown).
   • International Response:
     • The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) condemned this unilateral declaration and imposed trade embargoes on Southern Rhodesia.
   • Support for Settlers:
     • South Africa and Mozambique (under Portuguese rule, another hesitant decolonizer) supported the Whites in Southern Rhodesia and defied UNSC resolutions for trade embargoes.
   • Effect of UNSC Sanctions:
     • The UNSC’s trade sanctions ultimately failed to dismantle White rule, as many companies and governments engaged in covert trade to circumvent the sanctions. Economic interests sometimes overshadowed the struggle for Black independence.
   • Path to Independence (1980):
     • The decline of White rule began around 1976, influenced by various internal and regional factors. Mozambique’s independence from Portuguese rule in 1975 weakened White rule, as Mozambique, now under Black leadership, applied economic sanctions and provided refuge to guerrillas from Southern Rhodesia. This bolstered the balance of power in favour of the Blacks.
     • Support from South Africa decreased following their unsuccessful military intervention in Angola in 1975. The USA, fearing Cuban-Russian involvement, urged the Smith government to make concessions to the Blacks.
     • Guerrilla forces, led by Robert Mugabe, gained control of significant territories by 1978, putting the Whites on the brink of defeat. However, tribal differences delayed independence.
     • Prime Minister Smith exploited tribal rivalries by forming a coalition government with one tribal party, but other tribal groups continued guerrilla warfare.
     • In 1979, a conference was convened by the British, where a new constitution was proposed and accepted by the Whites. This constitution provided for Black majority rule, leading to the formation of the Republic of Zimbabwe in 1980, under Black majority rule with Robert Mugabe as the first president.

French Decolonization in Africa:

The French policy regarding colonies in Africa can be analyzed in two distinct phases:

1. Till 1954:
   • In this initial phase, France was largely opposed to any form of self-rule in its colonies. This stance was exemplified by the 1944 Brazzaville Declaration, which stated that there would be no self-government in French colonies even in the distant future.
   • The French treated their colonies and mandates as if they were integral provinces of France, and any form of self-government was vehemently opposed by the French settlers.
   • In 1949, France decided to suppress all nationalist movements, leading to the arrest of many African leaders who were labeled communists.
2. Post 1954:
   • The French policy underwent significant changes after France’s defeat in Indochina in 1954. This marked the beginning of the second phase, characterized by the acknowledgment that decolonization could no longer be postponed.
3. Tunisia (1956):
   • Tunisia was a French protectorate. The independence movement was led by a moderate leader named Habib Bourghiba. Simultaneously, Tunisians launched a guerrilla campaign against the government.
   • France initially sent troops to quell the movement, but they struggled to contend with guerrilla tactics and the widespread support for the nationalists. Meanwhile, France was also grappling with issues in Indochina and Morocco.
   • Fearing the high costs of a prolonged engagement and the potential for a communist takeover of the movement, France declared independence and transferred power to the moderate leader Bourghiba, aiming to continue its influence over Tunisia through neocolonialism.
4. Morocco (1956):
   • Morocco, too, was a French protectorate. The King of Morocco was opposed to French interference and demanded full autonomy, which led France to forcibly abdicate the King.
   • This sparked guerrilla warfare and violent demonstrations, with trade unions playing a significant role. Faced with the prospect of a costly anti-guerrilla campaign, France reinstated the King and granted Morocco full independence.
5. French West Africa & French Equatorial Africa:
   • These regions comprised a group of colonies and protectorates. The colonies in West Africa included Ivory Coast, French Sudan (which became Mali after independence in 1960), Senegal, Niger, Mauretania, Guinea, and more. French Equatorial Africa encompassed territories like Chad, Middle Congo, and Gabon.
   • Additionally, Cameroon and Togoland were under French mandate since World War I, and Madagascar was also under French control.
6. Algeria (1962):
   • Algeria had been under French control since 1830, and the French settlers (colons) held significant power. In 1954, there were 1 million French settlers and 9 million Algerians in Algeria.
   • After World War II, ten years of peaceful protests led by leader Messali yielded minimal results. French settlers made no concessions, and native Algerians were denied any role in the government.
   • France treated Algeria not as a colony or protectorate, but as an integral part of France itself. In 1954, after a decade of non-violent protests, the Algerians initiated a guerrilla war under the National Liberation Front (FLN).
   • Despite the failure in Indochina in 1954 and the forceful abdication of Morocco and Tunisia’s protectorates in 1956, no French government was willing to grant independence to Algeria, fearing a backlash from the French settlers and their influential lobbying groups.
   • By 1960, there were more than 700,000 French troops in Algeria, engaged in a massive conflict. The Algerian war ultimately led to the fall of the French government in 1958, as the army pressured the government to resign and requested former General De Gaulle as Prime Minister.

• General De Gaulle agreed to lead the government under the condition of being allowed to frame a new constitution. This demand was accepted, leading to the end of the Fourth French Republic. De Gaulle’s government then engaged in negotiations with the Algerians.
• A faction of the military initiated a terror campaign in Algeria and France, attempting to seize power. However, General De Gaulle’s resolute response turned the tide. French public opinion shifted in favor of granting independence to Algeria, which was achieved in 1962. Ben Bella became the first Algerian President.

7. French Community:
   • In 1958, France, under General De Gaulle, attempted to institutionalize the policy of neocolonialism. De Gaulle proposed the formation of a French Community, similar to the British Commonwealth, with specific provisions.
     • The 12 colonies of West and Equatorial Africa (which had protectorate status) would continue to have self-government in internal affairs with their own Parliament.
     • The French Community would encompass all these 12 colonies, and France would make crucial decisions regarding taxation and foreign affairs.
     • Members of the French Community would receive financial aid from France in return for their membership. However, they would have the option to reject membership, forfeiting economic aid.
   • This plan resulted in 11 colonies voting in favor of the French Community, with Guinea being the exception. Guinea opted for full independence and was granted it. Soon after, inspired by Guinea’s example, the 11 colonies, along with Cameroon and Togo, demanded complete independence.
   • All these countries were granted full independence in 1960. However, neocolonialism by France persisted after 1960 in these colonies, except for Guinea, as France continued to dominate their economic and foreign policies.

Belgium’s decolonization process in Africa:

Belgium’s decolonization process in Africa, particularly in Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Burundi, was marked by chaos and civil strife after independence. Belgian colonial policies were characterized by limited education for natives and exploiting tribal rivalries to maintain control. These practices had significant consequences during the decolonization process:

1. Using Tribal Rivalries:
   • a. In Belgian Congo, a diverse region with approximately 150 different tribes, Belgium employed a divide-and-rule strategy. It used one tribe to control and suppress others, favoring certain tribes in return for maintaining order.
   • b. In Ruanda-Burundi, the Belgians used the Tutsi tribe to dominate and control the Hutu tribes. However, the influence of nationalist ideas from neighboring colonies, such as France and Britain, began to affect the people.

2. Congo (1960):
   • a. In the Belgian Congo, protests erupted in 1959 due to issues like unemployment and poor living conditions. In response to these challenges, Belgium decided to grant independence in 1960. The fear of a costly guerrilla war, combined with the belief that it could better maintain control through neocolonialism, influenced this decision.
   • b. The chaos that followed independence can be attributed to several factors:

• The indigenous population lacked the education and skills required to manage bureaucratic positions or govern the country.
• The absence of professionals, including doctors, lawyers, engineers, and military officers, created a leadership vacuum.
• The lack of a well-organized, experienced independence movement similar to the Indian National Congress meant there was no clear plan for governance. The Congolese National Movement, led by figures like Patrice Lumumba, was relatively new and inexperienced.

The civil war in Congo continued from 1960 to 1964, as the newly independent nation struggled to establish a stable government and overcome the challenges that came with unpreparedness for self-governance.

Spanish Decolonization in Africa

Under Francisco Franco’s rule, Spain had relatively little interest in maintaining its African colonies, and it did not resist the growing independence movements in its remaining territories. The process of Spanish decolonization in Africa proceeded as follows:

1. Spanish Morocco: In 1956, Spanish Morocco was merged with the independent state of Morocco when France granted independence to French Morocco. Ifni, a small Spanish-held enclave on Morocco’s Atlantic coast, was integrated into Morocco in 1969.
2. Equatorial Guinea: Spain granted Equatorial Guinea, located in Central Africa, independence in 1968.
3. Spanish Sahara: The Spanish Sahara, a territory rich in phosphorus resources that were valuable to Spain’s economy, was the exception. Franco resisted the push for independence in this region until he died in 1975. After his death, the Spanish Sahara was divided and handed over to Morocco and Mauritania.

a. Polisario Front: The Polisario Front, an independence movement similar to the Indian National Congress, continued to advocate for an independent state of Sahara. It declared the Democratic Arab Republic of the Sahara (Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic) in 1976.

b. Recognition of SADR: India, along with Libya, Algeria, and some communist bloc countries, was among the first to recognize the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR). The conflict over Western Sahara became embroiled in the Cold War, with the communist bloc supporting the Polisario movement.

c. Cold War Dynamics: Algeria and Libya provided military support, while Morocco faced the potential of defeat. The United States intervened, viewing the Western Sahara issue as part of the Cold War due to the USSR’s recognition of the Democratic Arab Republic of the Sahara.

d. Protracted Conflict: The conflict persisted into the 1980s, leading to Morocco’s occupation of the part of Western Sahara formerly held by Mauritania. In 1990, the United Nations proposed a referendum to determine whether the people of Western Sahara desired independence or wished to remain part of Morocco. However, Morocco rejected this UN proposal.

e. Current Status: Presently, the status of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) remains disputed, with Western Sahara being the main affected territory. The SADR controls 25 percent of Western Sahara, while the majority is under Moroccan control. India supports the idea of an independent Western Sahara under the SADR, which is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and operates a government in exile in Algeria. The Polisario Front functions as a politico-military organization based in Algeria, and many Sahrawis continue to live in refugee camps in the region.

The Western Sahara issue remains unresolved, and its protracted conflict has caused significant suffering for the local population.

Portuguese Decolonization on the African Continent

Portugal’s decolonization of its African colonies, including Angola, Mozambique, and Portuguese Guinea, was marked by a transition from a policy of brutal repression to the eventual granting of independence. Here’s an overview of the decolonization process in these regions:

1. Effect of Colonialism: a. Portugal, under the right-wing fascist government of Dr. Salazar, initially pursued a policy of brutal repression against nationalist movements in its African colonies. b. The economies of Portuguese colonies were primarily based on agriculture, with little industrial development. Education and social indicators were poor.
2. Portugal Begins to Fail:
   • Nationalist groups emerged in all three colonies in 1956, but their early efforts were met with limited success.
   • The tide began to turn as other African colonies gained independence by 1960, inspiring the nationalist movements in Portuguese colonies to escalate their protests.
   • Salazar’s response was increased repression, which, in turn, led to the initiation of guerrilla campaigns against Portuguese colonial rule in 1961.
3. Guerrilla Warfare:
   • Guerrilla warfare started in Angola in 1961 under the leadership of Agostinho Neto.
   • In Mozambique, FRELIMO, led by Eduardo Mondlane, spearheaded the guerrilla forces.
   • Amílcar Cabral led the Guinea-Bissau guerrillas in Portuguese Guinea.
   • These movements received support from the Soviet Union, as they adopted Marxist ideologies.
4. Independence: By 1973, the Portuguese were spending a significant portion of their national budget, around 40%, on anti-guerrilla efforts. This led to internal discontent, and in 1974, an armed coup overthrew Salazar’s government.
   • Independence was subsequently granted to the colonies, with Portuguese Guinea becoming independent in 1974 as Guinea-Bissau, and Mozambique and Angola achieving independence in 1975.
5. Impact on Apartheid: The decolonization of the Portuguese empire in Africa had implications for the white settler communities in neighboring countries, particularly Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and South Africa. The newly independent states provided safe havens for anti-apartheid and anti-segregation guerrilla groups.
6. After Independence:
   • Following their independence, Angola was invaded by South Africa, which contributed to the Angolan Civil War. The country was also affected by Cold War politics and multiple invasions.
   • Mozambique was invaded by South Africa due to its support for FRELIMO, which represented the interests of the black majority. Mozambique, like many African countries, experienced internal conflicts and civil wars in the years following its independence.

The decolonization of Portuguese Africa was a complex and tumultuous process that had significant regional and international implications. It marked the end of colonial rule and the beginning of a new era for these African nations, although it was accompanied by challenges and conflicts in the post-independence period.

Italian Decolonization (Ethiopia, Libya, Eritrea, Somalia)

Italian decolonization in Africa took place after the defeat of Italy in World War II. Here’s an overview of the decolonization process in Italian colonies, including Ethiopia, Libya, Eritrea, and Somalia:

1. Ethiopia:
   • Italy’s rule in Ethiopia ended in 1941 when British and Ethiopian forces liberated the country from Italian occupation.
   • Emperor Haile Selassie, who had been in exile during the Italian invasion in 1935, was restored to power in Ethiopia. He ruled until his overthrow in 1974.
2. Libya:
   • Libya gained its independence in 1951.
   • King Idris was installed as the ruler of the newly independent Libya. He was pro-Western in his orientation.
3. Eritrea:
   • Eritrea, formerly an Italian colony, was federated with Ethiopia in 1952. However, it had provisions for internal autonomy.
   • Eritrean demands for full independence grew over the years due to perceived neglect and lack of autonomy.
4. Somalia:
   • Somalia became an independent state in 1960, following the merger of the former Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland.
   • It became the Somali Republic with its first president, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar.

Post-Independence Unrest: After gaining independence, several of these former Italian colonies experienced periods of unrest and political changes:

1. Libya:
   • King Idris was overthrown in a 1969 coup led by Muammar Gaddafi, marking the beginning of a socialist and nationalist regime.
   • The Gaddafi-led government implemented policies such as nationalizing the oil industry and urbanization.
2. Ethiopia:
   • Emperor Haile Selassie’s rule was marked by slow modernization efforts. However, he canceled autonomy provisions for Eritrea, which led to a war of independence.
   • Selassie was overthrown in 1974 in a coup that marked the end of the Ethiopian monarchy.
3. Eritrea:
   • Eritrea, which had been federated with Ethiopia, experienced a protracted struggle for independence against Ethiopian rule.
   • The conflict and secessionist movements resulted in significant budget allocations to the military, further exacerbating poverty and famine in the region.
   • Eritrea finally gained independence in 1993 after a long war.

Italian decolonization in Africa led to varying outcomes and challenges in these regions. While some countries achieved stability and independence, others faced prolonged conflicts and political transitions. Eritrea’s post-independence experience has been characterized by militarization, compulsory conscription, and ongoing regional issues.

Italian decolonization in Africa took place after the defeat of Italy in World War II. Here’s an overview of the decolonization process in Italian colonies, including Ethiopia, Libya, Eritrea, and Somalia:

1. Ethiopia:
   • Italy’s rule in Ethiopia ended in 1941 when British and Ethiopian forces liberated the country from Italian occupation.
   • Emperor Haile Selassie, who had been in exile during the Italian invasion in 1935, was restored to power in Ethiopia. He ruled until his overthrow in 1974.
2. Libya:
   • Libya gained its independence in 1951.
   • King Idris was installed as the ruler of the newly independent Libya. He was pro-Western in his orientation.
3. Eritrea:
   • Eritrea, formerly an Italian colony, was federated with Ethiopia in 1952. However, it had provisions for internal autonomy.
   • Eritrean demands for full independence grew over the years due to perceived neglect and lack of autonomy.
4. Somalia:
   • Somalia became an independent state in 1960, following the merger of the former Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland.
   • It became the Somali Republic with its first president, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar.

Post-Independence Unrest: After gaining independence, several of these former Italian colonies experienced periods of unrest and political changes:

1. Libya:
   • King Idris was overthrown in a 1969 coup led by Muammar Gaddafi, marking the beginning of a socialist and nationalist regime.
   • The Gaddafi-led government implemented policies such as nationalizing the oil industry and urbanization.
2. Ethiopia:
   • Emperor Haile Selassie’s rule was marked by slow modernization efforts. However, he canceled autonomy provisions for Eritrea, which led to a war of independence.
   • Selassie was overthrown in 1974 in a coup that marked the end of the Ethiopian monarchy.
3. Eritrea:
   • Eritrea, which had been federated with Ethiopia, experienced a protracted struggle for independence against Ethiopian rule.
   • The conflict and secessionist movements resulted in significant budget allocations to the military, further exacerbating poverty and famine in the region.
   • Eritrea finally gained independence in 1993 after a long war.

Italian decolonization in Africa led to varying outcomes and challenges in these regions. While some countries achieved stability and independence, others faced prolonged conflicts and political transitions. Eritrea’s post-independence experience has been characterized by militarization, compulsory conscription, and ongoing regional issues.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1: What is the decolonization of Africa?

A1: Decolonization of Africa refers to the historical process through which African nations gained independence from European colonial powers. This movement aimed to end the political, economic, and social dominance that colonial powers had established on the African continent.

Q2: When did the decolonization of Africa take place?

A2: The decolonization of Africa occurred primarily in the mid-20th century, starting after World War II. The process gained momentum in the 1950s and continued through the 1960s and 1970s. By the early 1990s, the majority of African countries had achieved independence.

Q3: Which factors contributed to the decolonization of Africa?

A3: Several factors contributed to the decolonization of Africa, including the aftermath of World War II, which weakened European colonial powers, the rise of anti-colonial movements, and global shifts in ideology that favored self-determination. Economic pressures and changing international norms also played crucial roles.

Q4: How did decolonization impact African nations?

A4: Decolonization had both positive and challenging impacts on African nations. On the positive side, it brought political autonomy and the opportunity for self-governance. However, challenges included post-independence struggles, economic dependencies, and the legacy of arbitrary colonial borders, leading to issues like ethnic tensions.

Q5: Are there any lasting effects of decolonization on Africa today?

A5: Yes, the effects of decolonization continue to influence Africa today. While independence granted political sovereignty, many nations face ongoing challenges such as economic disparities, political instability, and efforts to address the historical legacies of colonialism. The impact is multifaceted, shaping the social, political, and economic landscapes of African countries.

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