Ethics in Human Actions – UPSC Ethics Notes

Ethics in human actions is a crucial aspect of moral philosophy that deals with the rightness and wrongness of actions. It involves analyzing and evaluating actions based on various ethical theories and principles to determine whether they are morally acceptable or not. In this context, some key points and headings related to ethics in human actions are:

Importance of ethical behavior: Ethics plays a critical role in shaping human behavior and decision- making, and it is essential for individuals to act ethically in all aspects of their lives. Ethical behavior helps in establishing trust, maintaining social order, and promoting the well-being of society as a whole.
Ethical theories: There are various ethical theories that provide frameworks for analyzing and evaluating human actions. Some of the most prominent ethical theories include utilitarianism, deontology, virtue ethics, and care ethics. Each theory offers a unique perspective on how to determine the moral rightness or wrongness of an action.
Ethical principles: Ethical principles are fundamental guidelines that provide a basis for ethical decision- making. Some of the most common ethical principles include autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, justice, and fidelity. These principles help in evaluating actions and determining their moral value.
Ethics in professional settings: Professional ethics is an important aspect of ethics in human actions. It involves the application of ethical principles and values in various professions, such as medicine, law, business, and engineering. Ethical conduct in these professions is crucial for maintaining public trust and ensuring that professionals act in the best interest of their clients or patients.
Ethics in personal life: Ethics is not limited to professional settings, and individuals must also act ethically in their personal lives. This involves making ethical decisions in various situations, such as personal relationships, financial matters, and social interactions. Ethical behavior in personal life helps in building strong relationships, maintaining integrity, and promoting a just and fair society.
Moral reasoning: Moral reasoning is the process of using ethical principles and values to evaluate actions and make ethical decisions. It involves considering various ethical theories and principles, as well as the consequences of actions, to determine their moral value. Developing strong moral reasoning skills is essential for making ethical decisions in various settings.
Ethical dilemmas: Ethical dilemmas are situations where there are conflicting moral values, and it is difficult to determine the right course of action. These dilemmas require individuals to engage in moral reasoning and make difficult ethical decisions. Ethical dilemmas can arise in various settings, such as professional and personal life.

St. Thomas Aquinas was a philosopher and theologian who contributed significantly to the development of Christian ethics. Here are some of his ideas related to ethics in human actions:

Natural Law: Aquinas believed that ethical principles could be derived from natural law, which he saw as the moral law that God had established for humanity. He held that human reason could discover the natural law, which was based on human nature and guided human behavior towards its proper end.
Divine Law: Aquinas also believed that divine law, as revealed in the Bible, could supplement and clarify natural law. He held that divine law provided guidance on issues that natural law did not address, such as specific religious practices.
Virtue Ethics: Aquinas believed that human beings could develop virtues through practice, which would enable them to live a good life. He identified four cardinal virtues – prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude – and three theological virtues – faith, hope, and charity – which were necessary for salvation.
Human Dignity: Aquinas emphasized the intrinsic value of human beings as created in God’s image. He held that every human being deserved respect and dignity, regardless of their social status or wealth.
Free Will: Aquinas believed in the importance of free will in ethical decision-making. He held that human beings were capable of making rational choices, guided by natural law and divine law, and that they were responsible for their actions.
Ethics of Justice: Aquinas believed that justice was an essential component of ethical behavior. He held that justice required that people be treated fairly and that they fulfill their obligations to others.
Common Good: Aquinas believed that human beings had a duty to promote the common good, or the well-being of the community as a whole. He held that the common good was a necessary condition for individual flourishing and that individuals had a responsibility to contribute to the common good.
Ethics of Love: Aquinas emphasized the importance of love in ethical behavior. He held that love was the greatest of the theological virtues and that it should guide all human actions, motivating individuals to act in the service of others.

He believed in the concept of free will and its importance in ethical decision-making. Here are some of his ideas related to free will in ethics:

Human beings have free will

Free will is necessary for moral responsibility

Free will allows for moral growth

Free will must be guided by reason and faith

Overall, Aquinas’s ideas related to ethics in human actions reflect a commitment to human dignity, justice, and the common good, as well as an emphasis on the importance of reason, free will, and love in ethical decision- making.

Table of Contents

Impediments to Human Actions/Factors that Render Actions Non-Human in Ethics:

Ignorance:

Absence of knowledge in a subject capable of having knowledge.
Lack of knowledge in a subject who should have knowledge.
Civil servant can be ignorant if he lacks knowledge of Civil Service (Code of Conduct).

Passion:

Powerful emotions from a pretence of something perceived as good or evil.
Increases the will to act but simultaneously diminishes free will .
Deliberately arousing a passion before acting increases voluntary nature of action.
For instance, a person deliberately causing herself to become enraged to kill another person.

Fear:

Emotional reaction arising from impending danger.
Can be inflicted justly or unjustly.
Strong enough fear destroys freedom of choice and voluntariness of action.

Violence:

External physical force exerted on a person.
Unfree actions done in these circumstances are not human actions.

Habit:

Quality acquired through frequent repetition.
Good habits are virtues and bad habits are vices.
Some habits may become less voluntary because of a lack of advertence to a particular action.
Foreseeing results does not lessen voluntariness of an action.

Temperament:

The sum of a person’s natural propensities .
Character is the collection of a person’s acquired propensities, such as habits.
May sometimes lessen the voluntariness of actions but never destroy it.

Examination of the Morality of Human Action:

Human actions are subject to ethical examination and deciding morality.
Actions that fall under the above factors are beyond the scope of ethical examination.
E.g. A person killing in a fit of rage due to passion is a non-human action and cannot be examined ethically.

Morality Of Human Action – Essence, Determinants, And Consequences

Purpose Of Human Action

The purpose of human actions has been a subject of philosophical inquiry for centuries. Many different philosophical traditions offer different answers to this question.

Aristotle’s Ethics: According to Aristotle, the purpose of human action is to achieve eudaimonia, which is often translated as “happiness” or “flourishing.” Aristotle believed that eudaimonia is the ultimate goal of human life, and that all actions should be directed towards achieving this goal.
Kantian Ethics: Immanuel Kant argued that the purpose of human action is to act in accordance with the moral law. For Kant, the moral law is universal and applies to all rational beings. Therefore, the purpose of human action is to act in a way that is consistent with the moral law, regardless of the consequences.
Utilitarianism: According to utilitarianism, the purpose of human action is to maximize happiness or pleasure and minimize pain or suffering. This means that actions should be evaluated based on their overall utility or usefulness in promoting happiness and minimizing suffering.
Existentialism: According to existentialism, the purpose of human action is to create meaning and purpose in a world that is inherently meaningless. Existentialists argue that human beings are free to create their own meaning and purpose in life, but that this freedom comes with the responsibility to make choices and take actions that reflect our values and beliefs.
Daoism: According to Daoism, the purpose of human action is to live in harmony with the natural world and the Tao, which is often translated as “the way” or “the path.” Daoists believe that human beings should seek to live in accordance with the natural order of things, rather than trying to impose their will on the world.
Hinduism: In Hinduism, the purpose of human action is to achieve moksha, which is liberation from the cycle of birth and death. This can be achieved through various spiritual practices, such as meditation and devotion to a particular deity.
Buddhism: According to Buddhism, the purpose of human action is to achieve enlightenment and liberation from suffering. This can be achieved through the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, which involve developing wisdom, ethical conduct, and mental discipline.

Certain other philosophical perspectives on the Ultimate Purpose of Human Action:

Epicureanism: Pursuit of Pleasure

Stoicism: Cultivation of the Mind/Knowledge

Materialism: Acquisition of Material Goods

Humanism: Achieving Prosperity and Progress for Human Race

Humanitarianism: Service to Humanity or a Particular Group

There are different philosophical perspectives on the ultimate purpose of human action. Epicureans, for instance, believed that human happiness consists in obtaining the pleasure that life can offer. According to them, the ultimate purpose of human action is a pleasure. This pleasure can be experienced through various means such as food, drink, sex, and other enjoyable activities

On the other hand, Stoics claimed that the ultimate purpose of human action is to cultivate the human mind or acquire knowledge. They believed that true happiness comes from within and can only be attained through self-discipline and a commitment to personal growth. For Stoics, the pursuit of wisdom and knowledge was the highest form of human activity

Materialists, on the other hand, maintained that people’s happiness consists in acquiring material goods, thus the acquisition of wealth is or should be the ultimate purpose of human action. Materialists believed that the accumulation of wealth and material possessions would bring them happiness and fulfillment

Humanists held that the ultimate end of human action is in achieving prosperity and progress for the human race. They believed that human beings have the capacity to create a better world and that the ultimate goal of

Thomas Aquinas, who believed that moral good is achieved by following the natural law.

Consequentialist Ethics: Consequentialist ethics is a school of thought that emphasizes the importance of the consequences of an action in determining moral good. According to this school of thought, moral good is achieved by maximizing the positive consequences of an action and minimizing the negative consequences. Proponents of this school of thought include John Stuart Mill, who believed that moral good is achieved by promoting the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people, and Jeremy Bentham, who developed the concept of utilitarianism.
Existentialist Ethics: Existentialist ethics is a school of thought that emphasizes the importance of individual freedom and responsibility in determining moral good. According to this school of thought, moral good is achieved by taking responsibility for one’s actions and creating one’s own values and moral codes. Proponents of this school of thought include Jean-Paul Sartre, who believed that individuals are responsible for creating their own moral values, and Friedrich Nietzsche, who rejected traditional ideas of morality and ethics in favor of a morality of self-creation.

The essence of the Morality of Human actions

It refers to the fundamental principles or standards that determine whether an action is right or wrong. It is the study of what makes an action morally good or morally bad, and the consequences that follow from performing such actions. Morality provides a framework for ethical decision-making and guides human behavior toward what is considered to be morally right.

The essence of the morality of human actions is a complex concept that has been studied by various philosophers and scholars throughout history. One of the key elements of morality is the principle of intention, which holds that the morality of an action depends on the intention behind it. In other words, if the intention of an action is good, then the action is morally good, and vice versa.

Another important aspect of the essence of the morality of human actions is the concept of duty or obligation. According to this concept, an action can be morally right or wrong depending on whether it fulfills a person’s duty or obligation to others. For example, a doctor has a duty to save lives, and therefore, withholding medical treatment from a patient in need would be considered morally wrong.

The essence of the morality of human actions also includes the concept of consequentialism, which holds that the morality of an action is determined by its consequences. This means that an action is morally right if it leads to positive consequences and morally wrong if it leads to negative consequences. For example, if lying leads to the harm of others, then it is considered morally wrong.

Additionally, the essence of morality of human actions is often closely tied to the concept of virtues. Virtues are qualities or characteristics that are considered to be morally good, such as honesty, compassion, and integrity. Actions that are in line with these virtues are considered to be morally good, while actions that go against them are considered to be morally bad.

‘Ethics’ and ‘Morals’:

Ethics is the theory of right and wrong conduct. Morals, its practice. While ethics involves the values that a person seeks to express in a certain situation, morals refers to the way one sets about achieving this.

Ethics is concerned with the principles of human behaviour, morals with the application of these principles, in a particular situation.

‘Moral’, ‘Immoral’ and ‘Amoral’ Actions:

An action is said to be moral when it is done deliberately to attain the ultimate happiness. A morally good action has to be a moral action and a human action. An action is moral only if it is done freely and in view of an end. Immoral means ‘not observing a particular known moral rule’. Immoral actions are all those actions that are morally bad actions (eg. Incest, homicide, etc.).

Amoral’ or ‘non-moral’ means ‘not relevant to, or concerned with, morals’. We can note some of the non moral actions: 9 actions of inanimate objects or events (flood, famine, etc.). They are indifferent actions and are beyond the moral sphere.

9 reflex actions:

They are automatic and immediate (eg. breathing) 9 accidental acts 9 actions of children below the age of reason/ insane persons 9 actions done under the spell of hypnosis Habitual actions are moral actions as the habits are formed deliberately or acquired voluntarily.

In ethics, we are concerned with ‘immoral’ actions but not ‘amoral’ actions. Human Act: A human act is an act done by a human person deliberately, willingly, and freely in view of achieving an end. Morality is spoken of human beings and not of animals. An act to be a moral act it has to be performed by an individual with reason. Every human act is done in view of an end and is done willingly with full knowledge and full freedom. Ethics deals with human actions, which help or prevent a person from attaining an end.

End:

End of human action can be different. For a believer in God the ultimate end could be the eternal happiness of man (God and the beatific vision). God is the highest end of man and God is involved in every action of man. Happiness consists in the knowledge and love of God. For a non-believer, the well-being of humanity could be the end. It could also be an act done for its own sake.

Determinants of Human Actions

The determinants of human actions are complex and multifaceted and can be influenced by a wide range of factors, including

Biological factors: Human actions can be influenced by biological factors such as genetics, brain structure, and hormones. For example, certain genetic predispositions may make someone more likely to engage in risk-taking behavior.
Psychological factors: Human actions can also be influenced by psychological factors such as personality traits, beliefs, attitudes, and emotions. For example, someone with high levels of empathy may be more likely to help others in need.
Social factors: Human actions can be influenced by social factors such as cultural norms, peer pressure, and socialization. For example, in some cultures, it may be considered rude to speak loudly in public, and individuals may be more likely to conform to these cultural norms.
Environmental factors: Human actions can be influenced by environmental factors such as physical surroundings, access to resources, and weather conditions. For example, someone who lives in an area with limited access to healthy food options may be more likely to consume unhealthy foods.
Economic factors: Human actions can be influenced by economic factors such as financial incentives, wealth, and income inequality. For example, someone who is struggling financially may be more likely to take on risky jobs with poor working conditions in order to make ends meet.

To determine whether an action aligns with human nature or not, it is essential to examine three parts of every action. These three parts are:

Object of a Human Action
- The object of any action is its essence, which makes an action what it is. It can be good, bad, or indifferent. The following principles apply to the object of every action:
- An action whose object is bad will remain bad, and nothing can improve it, neither circumstances, nor purpose, nor intention.
- An action that is good may become bad because of circumstances or purpose.
- An action that is indifferent may become good or bad because of circumstances or purpose.
Circumstances of a Human Action

Circumstances refer to the particular time, place, agent, and manner in which the act is being done. Moral circumstances are the criteria for assessing the goodness or badness of human action. The following principles apply to the circumstances of human action:

Aggravating moral circumstances increase the goodness or badness of an action.
Extenuating moral circumstances decrease the amount of badness of an action.
Specifying moral circumstances make an indifferent act become good or bad.

End or Purpose of a Human Action

It refers to the purpose the person had in mind while doing the act. The following principles apply to the purpose of human action:

An action that is indifferent because of its object may become good or bad because of the purpose.
An action that is good because of its object may become better or less good or even bad because of the purpose.
An action that is evil by its object may become more wrong or perhaps less wrong but never good by its purpose.

Consequences of Morality in Human Action

Morality has significant consequences in human actions, including

Establishing social order: Morality provides a foundation for establishing social order by setting standards for what is right and wrong. People are more likely to follow ethical guidelines if they believe that these standards are fair and just.
Promoting cooperation and trust: Morality fosters cooperation and trust among individuals and groups. When people believe that others will behave ethically, they are more likely to work together and trust each other.
Enhancing personal well-being: People who act morally are more likely to experience positive emotions such as pride and self-respect. These emotions can lead to greater happiness and overall well-being.
Encouraging personal growth: Following moral principles can lead to personal growth and development. By reflecting on ethical questions and striving to act in accordance with one’s values, individuals can improve their character and become better people.
Reducing conflict and violence: When people act morally, they are less likely to engage in conflict and violence. This is because ethical behavior promotes empathy, understanding, and peaceful resolution of conflicts.
Fostering respect for others: Morality promotes respect for the dignity and worth of all individuals. When people act morally, they recognize the inherent value of others and treat them with kindness, compassion, and fairness.
Preserving societal norms and values: Morality helps to preserve societal norms and values that are important for maintaining social stability and cultural identity. By upholding ethical standards, people can help to ensure that their communities continue to thrive and grow.
The doctrine of double effect: It is a moral principle that addresses situations where an action has both good and bad consequences. According to this principle, it may be permissible to perform an action that has both good and bad effects if certain conditions are met. The conditions are:

The action must be morally good or indifferent in itself.
The agent must intend only the good effects and not the bad effects.
The bad effects must not be a means to the good effects.
The good effects must be proportionate to the bad effects.
For example, in medical situations, the use of pain-relieving drugs may have the unintended side effect of shortening a patient’s life. The doctrine of double effect allows doctors to administer the drugs with the intention of relieving pain, even though they know that the patient’s life may be shortened. The principle holds that the good of relieving the patient’s pain outweighs the bad of shortening their life.
The consequences of morality in human actions extend beyond the doctrine of double effect. Morality provides a framework for individuals to make decisions that are in line with their values and beliefs. It helps to promote the well-being of individuals and society as a whole by discouraging actions that cause harm and encouraging actions that promote the common good.
Morality also helps to foster trust and cooperation among individuals. When people act in accordance with moral principles, they are more likely to be trusted by others and to form cooperative relationships. This is because acting morally demonstrates that one is reliable, trustworthy, and committed to the well-being of others.
Moreover, morality promotes personal growth and development. When individuals act in accordance with moral principles, they develop a sense of self-respect and self-worth. They also develop a sense of purpose and meaning in their lives, as they work towards goals that are in line with their values and beliefs.

Dimensions of Ethics

Ethics is a complex field that encompasses a wide range of dimensions. These dimensions can be organized into different categories, each with its own thinkers and examples. Here are some of the main dimensions of ethics:

Metaethics

Metaethics is the branch of ethics that deals with the nature of ethics itself. It examines the meaning of ethical terms, the source of moral values, and the nature of ethical reasoning. Metaethics asks questions like, “What does it mean for something to be good or bad?” and “Are moral values objective or subjective?”
Thinkers: G.E. Moore, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and J.L. Mackie.

Normative Ethics

Normative ethics is the branch of ethics that deals with the formulation of moral principles and theories. It provides a framework for evaluating actions and determining what is right or wrong. Normative ethics asks questions like, “What are the principles that govern our moral behavior?” and “What makes an action right or wrong?”
Thinkers: Aristotle, Immanuel Kant, and John Stuart Mill.

Applied Ethics

Applied ethics is the branch of ethics that deals with specific moral issues and dilemmas. It examines how moral principles and theories apply to real-world situations, such as medical ethics, business ethics, and environmental ethics. Applied ethics asks questions like, “What is the right thing to do in this specific situation?” and “What are the moral implications of this particular action?”
Thinkers: Peter Singer, Judith Jarvis Thomson, and Tom Regan.

Descriptive Ethics

Descriptive ethics is the branch of ethics that describes how people actually behave and think in moral situations. It examines moral beliefs and practices across cultures and historical periods. Descriptive ethics asks questions like, “What do people believe is right or wrong?” and “How do people make moral decisions?”
Thinkers: Franz Boas, Ruth Benedict, and Lawrence Kohlberg.

Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics is the branch of ethics that emphasizes the development of virtuous character traits. It focuses on cultivating virtues such as honesty, courage, and compassion, rather than following rules or maximizing outcomes. Virtue ethics asks questions like, “What kind of person should I strive to be?” and “How can I develop virtuous character traits?”
Thinkers: Aristotle, Alasdair MacIntyre, and Martha Nussbaum.

FAQs

1. What are ethics in human actions?

Ethics in human actions refer to the principles, values, and moral guidelines that individuals and societies use to determine what is right or wrong in the choices and behaviors they engage in.

2. Why are ethics important in human actions?

Ethics are important because they provide a framework for individuals to make morally sound decisions, treat others with respect and fairness, and uphold standards of conduct that contribute to a just and ethical society.

3. How do ethics influence human behavior and decision-making?

Ethics influence human behavior and decision-making by serving as a moral compass. They help individuals consider the consequences of their actions, evaluate right and wrong, and make choices that align with their moral values.

4. Can ethical principles vary from person to person?

Yes, ethical principles can vary from person to person based on their individual beliefs, cultural backgrounds, religious affiliations, and personal experiences. This diversity can lead to differing moral judgments.

5. Are there universally accepted ethical principles that apply to all human actions?

While there are common ethical principles such as honesty, fairness, and respect that are widely accepted, the application of these principles can vary depending on cultural, societal, and situational contexts. Universally accepted ethical principles exist but may be interpreted differently.

6. What are some common ethical dilemmas in human actions?

Common ethical dilemmas include issues related to honesty and deception, fairness and equity, conflicts of interest, privacy and consent, and the balance between personal and societal interests.

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