- A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an entity, whether it pertains to animals, plants, or microorganisms, that has undergone genetic engineering methods to modify its DNA.
- Over successive generations, certain traits have been developed in crops such as corn, animals like cattle, and even household companions like dogs through selective breeding.
- However, in recent decades, advancements in biotechnology have empowered researchers to directly manipulate the genetic composition of microorganisms, plants, and animals.
Genetic Modification:
This process involves the alteration of an organism’s DNA to introduce specific traits or characteristics. Various techniques are employed in genetic modification, each possessing distinct advantages and applications.
IMPORTANT GENE EDITING TECHNIQUES
- Recombinant DNA Technology:
Involves isolating specific DNA segments from one organism and inserting them into another organism’s DNA. Widely used in creating genetically modified crops and pharmaceuticals.
- CRISPR-Cas9:
A revolutionary gene editing tool enabling precise targeting and modification of specific DNA sequences. Used to add, delete, or replace genes in various organisms.
- TALENs (Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases):
Programmable gene editing technique similar to CRISPR-Cas9, allowing targeting of specific DNA sequences for genetic modification in various organisms.
- RNA Interference (RNAi):
Natural cellular process regulating gene expression. Triggers degradation of target gene’s mRNA, leading to reduced expression of the corresponding protein.
- Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (Cloning):
Involves transferring the nucleus of a somatic cell into an enucleated egg cell, creating a genetically identical organism (clone). Famous example: Dolly the sheep.
- Synthetic Biology:
Involves designing and constructing new biological parts, devices, and systems. Includes synthesizing DNA sequences, modifying genes, and constructing genetic circuits.
- Viral Vectors:
Modified viruses carrying specific genes into target cells. Used in gene therapy to deliver therapeutic genes for treating genetic disorders.
- Selectable Markers and Reporter Genes:
Genes introduced alongside the desired gene for identifying and selecting genetically modified organisms. Selectable markers confer resistance, while reporter genes produce easily detectable proteins.
- Agrobacterium-Mediated Transformation:
Uses Agrobacterium tumefaciens to transfer genetic material into plants. The bacterium is engineered to carry the desired gene, integrating it into the plant’s genome.
- Microinjection:
Involves injecting foreign DNA directly into the nucleus of a target cell using a fine needle. Commonly used in animal genetic modification.
- Electroporation:
Cells are exposed to an electric field, temporarily disrupting the cell membrane and allowing foreign DNA to enter. Used for introducing genetic material into cells.
ADVANTAGES OF GENE EDITING
- Precision in Genetic Modification:
- Gene editing enables highly precise changes to an organism’s DNA, allowing for targeted modifications of specific genes or genetic sequences with exceptional accuracy.
- Agricultural Advancements:
- Gene editing can be applied to crops and livestock, leading to advancements in agriculture. This includes enhancing characteristics such as increased yield, disease resistance, or improved nutritional content, potentially addressing challenges related to food security and sustainability.
- Medical Breakthroughs:
- Gene editing holds the promise of significant medical breakthroughs. It can be utilized to treat genetic disorders by correcting or modifying defective genes, potentially offering more effective and targeted therapies.
- Reduced Use of Chemicals:
- In agriculture, genetically modified crops created through gene editing may require fewer pesticides and herbicides. This reduction in chemical usage benefits both the environment and human health, contributing to sustainable and eco-friendly farming practices.
- Disease Prevention:
- Gene editing has the potential to prevent and treat diseases by targeting specific genes associated with genetic disorders. This approach could lead to the development of innovative and personalized medical treatments.
- Biotechnological Innovations:
- Gene editing serves as a cornerstone for biotechnological innovations. It allows researchers to manipulate and engineer biological systems, facilitating advancements in various fields, including medicine, biotechnology, and environmental science.
- Improved Livestock and Animal Husbandry:
- Gene editing can enhance the traits of livestock, improving characteristics such as disease resistance, growth rates, and product quality. This contributes to more efficient and sustainable animal husbandry practices.
- Conservation Efforts:
- Gene editing can play a role in conservation efforts by potentially reviving or preserving endangered species. It offers a tool for addressing challenges related to biodiversity loss and ecosystem restoration.
- Human Organ Transplants:
- Gene editing may contribute to advancements in xenotransplantation, where organs from genetically modified animals could be used for human transplantation. This has the potential to address organ shortages and improve transplant success rates.
- Enhanced Crop Adaptation:
- Gene editing allows for the development of crops with improved adaptation to challenging environmental conditions, such as drought or high salinity. This could lead to increased resilience and productivity in agriculture.
- Research Acceleration:
- Gene editing accelerates scientific research by providing a more efficient and targeted way to study gene functions. This contributes to a deeper understanding of genetic mechanisms and cellular processes.
GENETICALLY MODIFIED PLANTS
Genetically modified (GM) plants are plants that have undergone intentional alteration of their genetic material through genetic engineering techniques. These modifications are carried out to introduce specific traits or characteristics that may not naturally occur within the plant’s genome. Examples include:
- Bt Cotton:
- Trait Introduced: Produces a protein from Bacillus Thuringiensis (Bt) bacterium that is toxic to certain insect pests.
- Purpose: Reduces the need for chemical insecticides, protecting the cotton crop from damage.
- Golden Rice:
- Trait Introduced: Modified to produce higher levels of beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A.
- Purpose: Addresses vitamin A deficiency, a major public health concern in many developing countries.
- Drought-Resistant Crops:
- Trait Introduced: Engineered to tolerate drought conditions by introducing genes that help the plant conserve water or withstand dehydration stress.
- Insect-Resistant Eggplant (Bt Brinjal):
- Trait Introduced: Produces a protein toxic to certain insect pests.
- Purpose: Reduces the need for chemical insecticides, benefiting farmers and the environment.
- Papaya Ringspot Virus-Resistant Papaya:
- Trait Introduced: Resists the papaya ringspot virus, which had previously devastated papaya production in Hawaii.
- Flavr Savr Tomato:
- Trait Introduced: Engineered for a longer shelf life by suppressing the gene responsible for softening and decay.
- Purpose: Addresses the challenge of post-harvest spoilage.
- Resistant Cassava:
- Trait Introduced: Modified to resist viral diseases that can significantly reduce yields.
- Purpose: Enhances crop resilience and ensures stable cassava production.
- Frost-Tolerant Strawberries:
- Trait Introduced: Genetically modified to tolerate frost, allowing for extended growing seasons in colder climates.
- Non-Browning Apples:
- Trait Introduced: Engineered to resist browning when sliced or bruised.
- Purpose: Reduces food waste and increases shelf life.
GENETICALLY MODIFIED ANIMALS
Genetically modified (GM) animals undergo intentional modification using genetic engineering techniques to introduce specific traits or features not naturally present in their genetic makeup. Here are some examples:
GloFish:
- Description: Zebrafish genetically modified to express fluorescent proteins from jellyfish and coral.
- Purpose: Used in scientific research and as pets to study genetic traits and environmental pollutants.
AquAdvantage Salmon:
- Description: Salmon genetically modified to grow faster by incorporating genes from Chinook salmon and ocean pout.
- Purpose: Speeds up reaching market size, enhancing efficiency in aquaculture.
Enviropig:
- Description: Pigs genetically modified to produce less phosphorus in their waste.
- Purpose: Aims to reduce the environmental impact of pig farming on water quality.
Knockout Mice:
- Description: Mice with specific genes “knocked out” or deactivated for research on gene function and modeling human diseases.
Transgenic Goats:
- Description: Goats engineered to produce proteins in their milk for pharmaceutical purposes.
- Example: Production of antithrombin, a protein used in blood clotting disorders.
Genetically Modified Mosquitoes:
- Description: Mosquitoes modified to reduce disease transmission by carrying genes preventing the development of disease-causing parasites.
Dolly the Sheep:
- Description: The first mammal cloned from an adult somatic cell using somatic cell nuclear transfer.
- Note: While not a traditional genetic modification, cloning involves altering the genetic makeup through a different process.
Genetically Modified Pigs for Organ Transplants:
- Description: Pigs modified to express human genes in their organs for potential xenotransplantation.
- Purpose: Aims to make pig organs suitable for transplantation into humans.
Featherless Chickens:
- Description: Chickens bred to have fewer feathers, potentially reducing the need for plucking during processing.
Spider Silk-Producing Goats:
- Description: Goats modified to produce spider silk proteins in their milk.
- Purpose: Spider silk proteins are used to create strong and lightweight materials.
GENETICALLY MODIFIED MEDICINES
Genetically modified medicines, also known as biopharmaceuticals or biologic drugs, are pharmaceutical products produced using genetic engineering techniques. These drugs are derived from living organisms, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells, that have been genetically modified to produce therapeutic proteins or other bioactive molecules. Here are some examples:
- Insulin:
- Production Method: Recombinant DNA technology is used to insert human insulin genes into bacterial or yeast cells.
- Purpose: Used for the treatment of diabetes, producing insulin identical to the naturally occurring hormone.
- Human Growth Hormone (HGH):
- Production Method: Genetically modified bacteria or mammalian cells are used to produce synthetic human growth hormone.
- Purpose: Used to treat growth disorders in children and hormone deficiencies in adults.
- Erythropoietin (EPO):
- Production Method: Genetically modified mammalian cells are employed to produce EPO, a hormone stimulating Red Blood Cell (RBC) production.
- Purpose: Used to treat anemia associated with conditions like kidney disease and chemotherapy.
- Monoclonal Antibodies:
- Production Method: Genetically engineered mammalian cells are modified to produce specific antibodies targeting disease-related molecules.
- Purpose: Used to treat various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and inflammatory conditions.
- Blood Clotting Factors:
- Production Method: Genetically modified cells are used to produce blood clotting factors like Factor VIII and Factor IX.
- Purpose: Used for the treatment of hemophilia.
- Vaccines:
- Production Method: Some vaccines are produced using genetically modified organisms, such as yeast or bacteria.
- Example: The hepatitis B vaccine is produced using genetically modified yeast cells.
- Enzyme Replacement Therapies:
- Production Method: Genetic engineering is employed to produce enzymes deficient or absent in certain genetic disorders.
- Purpose: Used for conditions like Gaucher’s disease and Fabry disease.
- Cancer Therapies:
- Production Method: Genetically modified T cells are developed for immunotherapy in certain cancers.
- Purpose: Modified T cells express Chimeric Antigen Receptors (CARs) targeting cancer cells.
- Clot-Dissolving Agents:
- Production Method: Genetically modified bacteria or yeast are used to produce clot-dissolving enzymes like tissue plasminogen activator (tPA).
- Purpose: Used in the treatment of strokes and heart attacks.
STATUS OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS IN INDIA
Bt Cotton:
- Indian farmers commenced the cultivation of Bt cotton, a genetically modified, pest-resistant variant, in the agricultural seasons of 2002-03.
- Bt modification involves incorporating the Bt gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus Thuringiensis, endowing the cotton plant with insecticidal properties against the cotton bollworm.
- Bt cotton, by 2014, constituted approximately 96% of the total cotton cultivation area in India.
- India holds the rank of the fourth-largest cultivator of GM crops globally in terms of acreage, with the second-largest cotton production.
- Bt cotton stands as the sole transgenic crop officially approved by the Indian government for commercial cultivation.
GM Mustard:
- The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) recently granted approval for the commercial cultivation of genetically modified mustard.
- Dhara Mustard Hybrid (DMH-11), developed by scientists at Delhi University, incorporates genes from a soil bacterium, enhancing mustard’s suitability for hybridization.
- In September 2017, a feasibility report claimed a yield increase of 25-30% over non-hybrids, a statement disputed by several NGOs.
- The GEAC approved the environmental release of mustard hybrid DMH-11 for seed production and testing, adhering to existing guidelines before potential commercial release.
Bt Brinjal:
- In 2007, the GEAC recommended the commercial release of Bt Brinjal, developed by the Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Company in collaboration with the University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, and the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University.
- However, India imposed a ban on the cultivation of Bt brinjal in 2010, and this initiative remained blocked as of that year.
REGULATORY FRAMEWORK IN INDIA
- All activities, operations, and products related to genetically modified organisms fall under the regulation of the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change.
- Regulation is conducted under the Environment (Protection) Act of 1986.
- The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) under the MoEFCC holds the authority to review, monitor, and approve all GMO-related activities, encompassing import, export, transport, manufacture, use, or sale of GMOs.
- GM foods are also subject to the regulations of the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI).
Acts and Rules:
Environment Protection Act, 1986 (EPA):
- The EPA serves as the foundational regulatory framework for GMOs in India.
- The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) operates as the primary regulatory authority, established under the Environment Protection Act of 1986 and operating under the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
Biological Diversity Act, 2002:
- Organizations or individuals aiming to access Indian biological resources, including those for GMO research or commercialization, must obtain prior approval and engage in benefit-sharing agreements with the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA).
- The Act ensures fair sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of biological resources with local communities and indigenous people.
Plant Quarantine Order, 2003:
- This order contains provisions for regulating the import and export of GMOs, encompassing genetically modified (GM) plants and plant materials.
Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006:
- The Food Safety and Standards Act of 2006 empowers the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) to establish safety standards for food products, including those derived from GMOs.
The Act includes provisions for conducting safety assessments to determine the suitability of GMO-derived foods for human consumption.
CONVENTIONS REGARDING GMOs
1. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):
- A legally binding treaty aimed at conserving biodiversity.
- Objectives:
- Conservation of biological diversity.
- Sustainable use of components of biological diversity.
- Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources.
- Secretariat: Montreal, Canada.
- Operates under the United Nations Environment Programme.
2. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety:
- Primarily addresses the transboundary movement of living modified organisms (LMOs).
- Includes provisions regarding the handling, transport, and use of GMOs, which can extend to GMOs in animals.
- A supplement to the Convention on Biological Diversity.
- Approved in 2000.
- Came into force in 2003.
3. Nagoya Protocol:
- Focuses on access to genetic resources and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from their utilization, including Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs).
- Adopted in 2010 in Nagoya, Japan, during COP10.
- Entered into force in 2014.
FAQs – Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
Q1: What is a Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)?
A GMO is an entity, whether plant, animal, or microorganism, that has undergone genetic engineering methods to modify its DNA.
Q2: How do genetic modifications occur over generations naturally?
Certain traits in crops, animals, and pets can be developed over generations through selective breeding. However, recent biotechnological advancements allow direct manipulation of genetic composition.
Q3: What is Genetic Modification?
Genetic modification is the alteration of an organism’s DNA to introduce specific traits or characteristics. Various techniques, such as CRISPR-Cas9 and recombinant DNA technology, are employed in this process.
Q4: What are the important gene editing techniques?
- Recombinant DNA Technology
- CRISPR-Cas9
- TALENs (Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases)
- RNA Interference (RNAi)
- Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (Cloning)
- Synthetic Biology
- Viral Vectors
- Selectable Markers and Reporter Genes
- Agrobacterium-Mediated Transformation
- Microinjection
- Electroporation
Q5: What are the advantages of gene editing?
- Precision in Genetic Modification
- Agricultural Advancements
- Reduced Use of Chemicals
Q6: How are genetically modified (GM) plants created?
GM plants undergo intentional genetic alterations for specific traits. Examples include Bt Cotton, Golden Rice, and Drought-Resistant Crops.
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