Lal Bahadur Shastri Years

Lal Bahadur Shastri, the unassuming yet resolute leader, assumed the helm of India’s governance during a critical juncture in its history. Serving as the second Prime Minister of the nation from 1964 to 1966, Shastri’s tenure, often referred to as the “Shastri Years,” was marked by a steadfast commitment to social justice, economic progress, and national security. Despite his relatively brief time in office, Shastri’s leadership left an indelible mark on the collective memory of the Indian populace, characterized by his humility, integrity, and unwavering dedication to the welfare of his countrymen. Under his stewardship, India navigated through formidable challenges, both domestic and international, with resilience and resolve, earning him admiration and respect, both at home and abroad. The legacy of Lal Bahadur Shastri continues to inspire generations, embodying the timeless values of simplicity, honesty, and selfless service to the nation.

Table of Contents

After the passing of Jawaharlal Nehru in 1964, there was a question of succession within the Indian National Congress. The two main contenders for the position of Prime Minister were Morarji Desai and Lal Bahadur Shastri. Eventually, under the influence of a group of prominent Congress leaders known as the Syndicate, it was decided that Lal Bahadur Shastri would succeed Nehru as the Prime Minister. Shastri took the oath of office in June 1964.

Lal Bahadur Shastri indeed inherited a complex set of challenges when he assumed office as Prime Minister. These included:

Economic Stagnation and Food Shortages: The Indian economy was facing stagnation, and there were severe shortages of food. This was a critical issue given India’s primarily agrarian economy at the time.
Language Agitation in Tamil Nadu: There were protests in Tamil Nadu demanding the continuation of English as an official language beyond the fifteen years as provided by the Constitution in 1950. This was a significant socio-linguistic issue.
Demand for Separate States: There were demands for separate states, particularly in Punjab. This reflected the broader issue of linguistic and regional identities in India.
Naga Insurgency: The Nagas were demanding independence, which led to an insurgency in Nagaland. This was a significant internal security challenge.
Kashmir Issue and Pakistan’s Involvement: The Kashmir issue remained unresolved, and Pakistan’s involvement in Kashmir was a source of concern. This was a longstanding geopolitical challenge.
China’s Nuclear Test: China’s nuclear test in October 1964 marked a significant development. It signaled the growth of China’s power and capabilities, raising strategic concerns.

Dealing with these multifaceted challenges required astute leadership and strategic decision-making on Shastri’s part.

Lal Bahadur Shastri’s response to the various challenges he faced:

Food Crisis and Green Revolution: Shastri’s government took significant steps to address the food crisis by initiating the Green Revolution. This was a pivotal development in India’s agricultural history and helped increase food production substantially.
Language Assurance: Shastri assured non-Hindi-speaking states that their right to conduct official business in their regional languages would be protected. He also affirmed the continued use of English as a language for correspondence between the center and the states. However, finding a lasting solution to the language issue proved to be a complex task due to differing opinions.
Punjab’s Demand for Separate State: The demand for a separate state in Punjab was not decisively addressed during Shastri’s tenure. The matter was left for his successor, Indira Gandhi, to handle.
Nagaland Insurgency: Despite the creation of the state of Nagaland in 1963, the insurgency continued to escalate, and a lasting solution was not achieved during Shastri’s time in office.
Kashmir Issue and Pakistan’s Role: The situation in Kashmir began to escalate during Shastri’s tenure, and Pakistan took advantage of the unrest, eventually leading to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965.
China’s Nuclear Test: In response to China’s successful nuclear test, Dr. Homi J. Bhabha, Director of the Atomic Energy Commission, suggested that India might consider going nuclear in certain circumstances. However, Shastri did not endorse these statements.

These details provide a comprehensive overview of the challenges and responses during Lal Bahadur Shastri’s time as Prime Minister. His tenure was marked by a series of complex issues that required careful handling.

The Kamaraj Plan

It was a significant political move in response to the challenges faced by the Congress Party after the Indo-China war and the emergence of regional parties like the DMK. Proposed by K. Kamaraj, the Chief Minister of Madras, it aimed to revitalize the Congress and counter the growing influence of regional parties.

The key features of the Kamaraj Plan included:

Leadership Transition: The plan called for senior party leaders to step down from their ministerial positions and focus on rebuilding the party. This was a strategic move to infuse new energy and ideas into the Congress.
Focus on Party Building: The leaders who resigned from their ministerial positions were expected to engage in grassroots party work, strengthen organizational structures, and connect with the masses.
Lead by Example: Kamaraj himself set an example by resigning from the post of Chief Minister in October 1963. His resignation was symbolic of his commitment to the plan’s objectives.
Resignations of Prominent Leaders: Along with Kamaraj, several prominent leaders, including Lal Bahadur Shastri, Jagjivan Ram, Morarji Desai, Biju Patnaik, and S.K. Patil, also resigned from their respective posts in both the Union government and state governments.

The Kamaraj Plan was an attempt to rejuvenate the Congress Party and reconnect with the people. It aimed to address the complacency that had set in after fifteen years of continuous rule. By focusing on party organization and strengthening the grassroots, the plan sought to restore the Congress Party’s popularity and influence.

The rise of regional politics in India is a direct result of the country’s diverse cultural, linguistic, and social landscape. Aspirations and concerns of various regions often differ from those at the national level, leading to the formation of regional parties. Here are some prominent examples:

1. DMK in Tamil Nadu:

Formation: Established in 1949 by Annadurai, the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) initially advocated for an independent Dravidian nation-state comprising southern states.
Evolution: Over time, the DMK shifted its stance, recognizing the impracticality of a separate nation-state. It began focusing on preserving Tamil culture within the framework of Indian unity.
Political Participation: The DMK transitioned from an anti-Brahmin, anti-north, and anti-Hindi movement to an active participant in electoral politics.
Government Formation: In 1967, the DMK won the state elections and Annadurai became the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu.

2. Shivsena in Maharashtra:

Formation: Founded in 1966 by Bal Thackeray, Shivsena aimed to champion the rights of Maharashtrians in Mumbai, emphasizing the slogan “Bombay for Maharashtrians.”
Regional Interests: Shivsena’s agenda included advocating for local job opportunities for native residents, also known as “sons of the soil.”

3. Telugu Desam Party (TDP):

Formation: The TDP was established in the early 1980s by Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao (NTR) to address the concerns and aspirations of the Telugu-speaking population.
Advocacy: The party advocated for the rights and development of Telugu-speaking people, particularly in Andhra Pradesh.

4. Assam Gana Parishad (AGP):

Formation: Formed in 1985 in Assam, the AGP emerged as a regional party to address the unique socio-political issues faced by the people of Assam.

These regional parties played a crucial role in articulating and addressing the specific concerns of their respective regions. They often served as powerful voices advocating for the interests of their local populations, contributing significantly to the federal nature of Indian politics.

The rise of regional parties in India has had significant impacts on the political landscape and governance of the country:

1. Strengthening of Indian Federation:

Regional parties have played a crucial role in representing the diverse interests and aspirations of different states and linguistic communities.
By advocating for regional issues, these parties have contributed to a more balanced and inclusive approach to governance, strengthening the federal structure of India.

2. Formation of Coalition Governments:

Regional parties often hold the balance of power in coalition politics at the national level.
They have been instrumental in the formation of coalition governments, where they play a pivotal role in shaping policies and decision-making.

3. Increased Representation of Regional Interests:

The presence of regional parties in the Lok Sabha (Lower House of Parliament) has ensured that the concerns and priorities of specific states and regions are adequately represented.
This has led to a more nuanced and responsive approach to policy-making, accounting for the diverse needs of India’s various regions.

4. Expression of Subnationalism:

Regional parties can sometimes channel subnational sentiments and identity politics.
In some cases, this expression of regional pride and identity has resulted in social and political movements, and at times, even conflicts.

5. Occasional Use of Violent Means:

In pursuit of their regional interests, some parties have resorted to violent means, which can lead to law and order challenges.
Instances of civil unrest or protests, often related to issues of language, culture, or identity, have been observed in some regions.

It’s important to note that while regional parties have contributed to the diversity and vibrancy of Indian democracy, they also pose challenges in terms of maintaining national cohesion and balancing regional interests with the broader national agenda. Balancing the demands of regional parties with the imperatives of a united, cohesive nation remains a complex task for India’s political leadership.

Tashkent Agreement:

After the Indo-Pak War of 1965, both countries faced international pressure to resolve their differences. The Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin invited the Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and the Pakistani President Ayub Khan to Tashkent in January 1966 for peace talks. The Tashkent Agreement was signed on January 10, 1966.

Key Points of the Tashkent Agreement:

Ceasefire: Both India and Pakistan agreed to an immediate ceasefire and to withdraw their armed forces to the positions they held prior to the conflict.
Restoration of Economic and Diplomatic Relations: The agreement called for the restoration of economic and diplomatic relations, as well as trade and communications.
Return of Territories: Both sides agreed to return the territories captured during the conflict. This included the withdrawal of Indian forces from some parts of West Pakistan and Pakistani forces from some parts of Jammu and Kashmir.
Prisoners of War (PoWs): The Tashkent Agreement facilitated the exchange of prisoners of war and the repatriation of civilian abductees.
Future Dialogue: It was agreed that both countries would work towards normalizing their relations and finding a lasting solution to their disputes, including the Kashmir issue, through peaceful means.
Non-Resumption of Hostilities: Both sides pledged not to resort to the use of force and to settle their differences through peaceful means.

Tragically, Lal Bahadur Shastri passed away in Tashkent on January 11, 1966, the day after signing the agreement. Despite this, the Tashkent Agreement remained in effect and played a significant role in stabilizing the situation between India and Pakistan.

The agreement, however, did not lead to a lasting resolution of the Kashmir issue or the underlying tensions between the two countries, and further conflicts would arise in the years that followed.

Operation Gibraltar and Operation Grand Slam:

Operation Gibraltar: This was a covert operation launched by Pakistan in August 1965. Trained infiltrators were sent into the Kashmir Valley with the aim of inciting pro-Pakistan protests and creating conditions for a military intervention. The operation was named after the famous Moorish victory in medieval Spain. The infiltrators were meant to incite local support for Pakistan.
Objective of Operation Gibraltar: The primary objective of Operation Gibraltar was to provoke a widespread insurgency in the Kashmir Valley, ultimately leading to the accession of the region to Pakistan.
Indian Response: Upon learning of the infiltrations, Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri ordered the Indian Army to cross the Line of Control (LoC) and seal the passes used by infiltrators. This marked the beginning of full-scale hostilities between India and Pakistan.
Operation Grand Slam: When Operation Gibraltar did not achieve the desired results, Pakistan launched Operation Grand Slam. This was a major military offensive by Pakistan in the Chhamb sector of southwest Jammu and Kashmir. The offensive involved a combined tank and infantry assault.
Indian Counterattack: In response to Operation Grand Slam, Lal Bahadur Shastri not only ordered the defense of Kashmir but also authorized the opening of a new front in the regions of Lahore and Sialkot, targeting Pakistan. This move significantly expanded the scope of the conflict.
Outcomes: The conflict led to intense fighting in various sectors, with both sides experiencing gains and losses. The situation escalated to a point where international intervention was required to bring about a ceasefire.

Ultimately, the Tashkent Agreement in January 1966 facilitated a ceasefire and the withdrawal of forces, though it did not provide a definitive resolution to the longstanding issues between India and Pakistan, particularly regarding Kashmir.

International Response and Gains for India:

International Response:

The escalating hostilities between India and Pakistan in 1965 raised concerns among the superpowers. The United States and Britain responded by cutting off arms, food, and other supplies to both countries.
China openly supported Pakistan, considering India as the aggressor. The Soviet Union, on the other hand, discouraged China from further aiding Pakistan.
The United Nations Security Council intervened and pressured both India and Pakistan to agree to a ceasefire.
The war resulted in significant losses in terms of military personnel, tanks, aircraft, etc., leading to its classification as an inconclusive conflict.

Gains for India:

(a) Foiled Infiltration of Kashmir: India successfully thwarted Pakistan’s Operation Gibraltar, which aimed to incite insurgency in the Kashmir Valley.

(b) Restored Pride and Confidence: The victory in the 1965 war helped India recover from the blow to its pride, prestige, and self-confidence that had been dealt by the defeat in the 1962 Sino-Indian War.

(c) Political Unity and Strength: The war contributed to a sense of political unity and strength in India. The nation came together in the face of external aggression, fostering a spirit of unity.

Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan (Hail the Soldier, Hail the Farmer):

This slogan was coined by Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri during the 1965 war. It aimed to boost the morale of both the soldiers and the farmers.
The slogan emphasized the crucial roles played by soldiers in defending the nation and farmers in ensuring food security. It encouraged farmers to increase agricultural production, striving for self-sufficiency in food and reducing dependence on food imports.
The slogan became an enduring motto in India, symbolizing the nation’s recognition of the invaluable contributions of its soldiers and farmers.
Tashkent Declaration:
After the ceasefire in the 1965 Indo-Pak war, efforts were made to negotiate a peaceful settlement between India and Pakistan. The Soviet Union played a significant role in mediating between the two nations, leading to a historic meeting in Tashkent. Here, both Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri of India and President Ayub Khan of Pakistan, under the auspices of the Soviet Premier, reached an agreement known as the Tashkent Declaration in January 1966. The declaration included several crucial provisions:
(a) Kashmir Dispute: Pakistan agreed to give up its demand for international arbitration on the Kashmir issue. This signaled a shift from Pakistan’s earlier stance.
(b) Territorial Adjustments: India agreed to withdraw from strategic positions it had gained during the war, such as the Haji Pir Pass in Kashmir. This was part of a broader effort to restore the status quo ante.
(c) Withdrawal of Forces: Both India and Pakistan committed to withdrawing their armed forces to the positions they held prior to the conflict. This aimed to de-escalate tensions and restore a semblance of normalcy in the region.
(d) Prisoner Exchange: The Tashkent Declaration included provisions for the orderly repatriation and exchange of prisoners of war. This humanitarian aspect was a significant component of the agreement.
(e) Resumption of Diplomatic Relations: The declaration paved the way for the re-establishment of diplomatic ties between India and Pakistan. This was a crucial step towards normalizing relations after the hostilities.
(f) Peaceful Resolution of Disputes: Both nations affirmed their commitment to resolving future disputes through peaceful means, renouncing the use of force. This principle was a cornerstone of the declaration, emphasizing diplomatic solutions over military confrontation.
The Tashkent Declaration was a significant milestone in Indo-Pak relations. It demonstrated a willingness on both sides to engage in dialogue and seek peaceful solutions to their disputes. Unfortunately, Lal Bahadur Shastri’s sudden and untimely demise in Tashkent shortly after the agreement was signed added a somber note to the proceedings.

Reasons for Withdrawal from Haji Pir Pass:

India’s decision to withdraw from the strategically significant Haji Pir Pass, as outlined in the Tashkent Declaration, was influenced by several key factors:

Avoidance of Prolonged Conflict: The Indo-Pak war of 1965 had already taken a toll on both nations. Prolonging the conflict, especially over contested territories like Haji Pir Pass, risked further human and material losses.
International Pressure and Mediation: The involvement of the Soviet Union as a mediator in the Tashkent talks carried substantial diplomatic weight. Refusing to comply with the terms of the declaration, which included withdrawal from Haji Pir Pass, might have strained India’s relations with the USSR.
Maintaining Diplomatic Support: India sought international support, especially from the Soviet Union, on the Kashmir issue. Complying with the Tashkent Declaration was seen as a way to secure and maintain this support, as it indicated India’s willingness to engage in peaceful resolution efforts.
Ensuring Access to Military Supplies: A continued military standoff could have potentially affected India’s access to crucial defense equipment and supplies, which were essential for national security. Adhering to the Tashkent Declaration helped ensure a smoother flow of necessary resources.
Respect for Peaceful Resolution: The Tashkent Declaration emphasized the commitment of both India and Pakistan to resolving disputes through peaceful means. Adhering to this principle was seen as a responsible and constructive approach to regional stability.
Avoiding Escalation with Pakistan: The withdrawal from Haji Pir Pass signaled India’s willingness to de-escalate tensions with Pakistan. It was a pragmatic move aimed at preventing further conflict and promoting stability in the region.

It’s important to note that while the decision to withdraw from Haji Pir Pass may have been influenced by these factors, it was ultimately a complex political and strategic decision made in the context of the broader Indo-Pak conflict and the diplomatic efforts to find a resolution.

White Revolution (Operation Flood)

The White Revolution, also known as Operation Flood, was a successful initiative in India’s dairy industry. It was launched in 1970 with the primary aim of modernizing and developing the dairy sector. Here are some key features and impacts of the White Revolution:

Milk Cooperatives: The White Revolution was centered around the creation of dairy cooperatives. These were formed to empower local dairy farmers by collectively managing the production, processing, and marketing of milk and dairy products.
Amul Cooperative Model: The Amul cooperative model, initiated by Dr. Verghese Kurien, was a cornerstone of the White Revolution. It established a successful framework for dairy cooperatives, starting in the state of Gujarat. The model emphasized the collective strength of small dairy farmers.
Modernizing Infrastructure: The initiative focused on modernizing dairy infrastructure, which included the introduction of advanced technology in milk production, processing, and distribution.
Increasing Milk Production: The primary goal of Operation Flood was to increase milk production and make India self-sufficient in dairy products. This was achieved through a combination of measures including breed improvement, better cattle nutrition, and veterinary care.
Market Access and Fair Prices: Dairy cooperatives helped farmers get fair prices for their milk by eliminating middlemen and ensuring direct access to markets. This contributed to improved livelihoods for millions of small-scale dairy farmers.
Regional Expansion: The success of the program led to its replication in various states across India, significantly expanding its reach and impact.
Impact on Rural Economy: The White Revolution played a crucial role in uplifting rural economies by generating employment opportunities and increasing the income of dairy farmers.
Food Security and Nutrition: By ensuring a steady and affordable supply of milk and dairy products, the White Revolution contributed to enhancing food security and improving nutrition levels, especially among children.
Reducing Dependence on Imports: India, which used to be heavily reliant on imported dairy products, became self-sufficient in milk production, reducing its dependence on foreign markets.
Global Recognition: The success of Operation Flood gained international recognition and was hailed as one of the world’s largest agricultural development programs.

The White Revolution stands as a testament to the power of cooperative movements and community-driven initiatives in transforming agriculture and improving the lives of millions of people.

The success story of dairy cooperatives and the Amul brand began in the Kaira district of Gujarat, India. Here’s a brief history of the cooperative movement and the birth of Amul:

Background:

In the years following India’s independence in 1947, farmers in the Kaira district faced significant challenges, especially in the marketing of milk.
The Bombay Milk Scheme, initiated by the Government of Bombay in 1945, was designed to provide a regular supply of milk to the city. However, the benefits of this scheme were not reaching the milk producers directly.
Milk contractors, who acted as intermediaries, siphoned off a substantial portion of the profits, leaving the farmers with minimal returns for their milk.

Initiation of the Cooperative:

In this backdrop, the farmers of Kaira district sought advice from Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, who had previously advised them to form their own cooperatives during the Quit India Movement of 1942.
Sardar Patel reiterated his advice, emphasizing the importance of farmers’ cooperatives for their economic welfare.
Morarji Desai, a prominent leader and statesman, was deputed by Sardar Patel to facilitate the establishment of a cooperative in the Kaira district.

Formation of the Kaira Union:

Despite facing challenges and opposition from the Bombay government, the Kaira District Cooperative Milk Producer’s Union was officially established in 1946.
The primary objective of the Kaira Union was to provide proper marketing facilities to milk producers in the district.
It started supplying milk under the Bombay Milk Scheme but with a significant difference: the milk producers were directly involved in the cooperative, ensuring they received a fair share of the profits.

Leadership:

Tribhuvandas K. Patel, a Gandhian freedom fighter and a staunch advocate for farmer cooperatives, became the first chairman of the Kaira Union in 1947.
Dr. Verghese Kurien, known as the “Milkman of India,” served as the Chief Executive of the union from 1950 to 1973.

The success of the Kaira District Cooperative Milk Producer’s Union, popularly known as Amul, and its cooperative model catalyzed the White Revolution (Operation Flood), making India the world’s largest milk producer and improving the livelihoods of millions of dairy farmers. The Amul brand became synonymous with high-quality dairy products and played a pivotal role in transforming India’s dairy industry.

Amul’s remarkable journey continued with several key developments:

Increased Production and Demand:

As milk production increased, the Bombay Milk Scheme was no longer capable of absorbing the surplus milk. This prompted the need for a processing plant that could convert excess milk into products such as butter and milk powder. In 1955, Amul established a processing plant to meet this demand.

Introduction of the ‘Amul’ Brand:

The Kaira Union adopted the name ‘Amul,’ derived from “Anand Milk Union Limited,” for marketing their dairy products. This was a significant step in creating a distinct brand identity.

Diversification and Innovations:

Amul continued to diversify its product range and introduce innovations in the dairy industry. Notably, Amul achieved a significant breakthrough by producing milk products from buffalo milk, a pioneering feat recognized globally.
In 1960, Amul set up a new factory for the manufacturing of cheese and baby food, further expanding its product offerings.
The cooperative adopted modern technologies for the production of cattle feed, employing computer technology for cost-benefit analysis to ensure the nutritional value and pricing of feed ingredients were optimized.

Expansion and Formation of Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation Ltd:

The success of the ‘Anand Pattern’ cooperative model in the Kaira district led to its replication in other districts of Gujarat.
In 1974, the Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation Ltd (GCMMF) was established as an apex organization overseeing marketing activities. GCMMF played a crucial role in coordinating marketing efforts among various district-level unions, ensuring that Amul’s products reached a wider customer base.

The success of the Amul cooperative and its contribution to the White Revolution can be attributed to several key factors:

Visionary Leadership: Dr. Verghese Kurien provided visionary leadership to the cooperative. He recognized that solving the problem of milk marketing was essential for increasing milk production. His commitment and innovative thinking were instrumental in the project’s success.
Veterinary Services: The provision of veterinary services, including artificial insemination, improved the quality of livestock. This contributed to higher milk yields and better animal health.
Comprehensive Strategy: The cooperative implemented a comprehensive program that addressed various aspects of animal husbandry. This included animal breeding, nutrition, health and hygiene, livestock marketing, and scientific extension services. High-quality fodder seeds were also made available to enhance milk production.
Insurance: To provide security to milk producers, the cooperative offered insurance coverage for milch animals. This reassured farmers in case of the loss of an animal, encouraging them to invest in dairy farming.
Awareness Campaign: The cooperative actively conducted awareness campaigns among peasants and women, who often managed the animals. Educating them about advancements in animal husbandry and scientific practices motivated them to adopt these practices, resulting in increased milk production.
Democratic Model: The democratic and cooperative model of functioning created a sense of ownership among all members. This encouraged active participation and collaboration among farmers. It instilled a feeling that they were partners in the success of the cooperative, which significantly contributed to increased milk production.

These factors, combined with the commitment of the farmers and the cooperative’s focus on quality and innovation, led to the extraordinary success of Amul and the White Revolution in India’s dairy industry.

The impact of the success of the Amul cooperative and the White Revolution was substantial:

Improved Living Standards: The White Revolution significantly elevated the living standards of poor and landless farmers. Nearly half of the rural households’ income in Kaira district came from dairy farming.
Collective Benefits: The profits generated by the cooperatives were reinvested to enhance common facilities in villages. This included improvements in wells, roads, schools, and other essential infrastructure.
Social Inclusion: The cooperative model brought together producers from diverse backgrounds, including different castes, classes, genders, and religions. This promoted social inclusion and cohesion within the community.
Promotion of Democracy: The cooperative’s democratic structure, where each member had one vote in the elections for chairmanship regardless of their shareholding, contributed to the spread of democratic principles and practices.
Impact on Operation Flood: The success of the Kaira cooperative served as a valuable model and experience for the broader initiative known as ‘Operation Flood.’ This nationwide program aimed to replicate the success of the Amul cooperative across various states, further revolutionizing India’s dairy industry.

Overall, the White Revolution not only transformed the dairy sector but also had a profound impact on the socio-economic fabric of rural communities, promoting inclusivity, democracy, and collective prosperity.

The establishment of the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) in 1965 marked a significant step in replicating the success of the cooperative model pioneered by the Amul initiative. Here are some key points about the NDDB:

Formation and Objectives: The NDDB was established in 1965 with its headquarters located in Anand, Gujarat. Its primary objective was to strengthen farmer’s cooperatives and formulate policies conducive to their growth and development. The overarching vision was to utilize dairy farming as a tool for the holistic development of rural India.
Leadership and Duration: Dr. Verghese Kurien, the visionary behind the Amul cooperative, served as the first chairman of the NDDB and led the organization until 1998. His extensive experience and dedication were instrumental in shaping the board’s initiatives and strategies.
Focus Beyond Dairy: While the NDDB was initially set up to replicate the successful dairy cooperative model, it later expanded its scope beyond milk. Under Dr. Kurien’s guidance, the NDDB initiated cooperatives for producers of fruits and vegetables, oilseed cultivators, small-scale salt makers, and tree growers. This diversification helped extend the cooperative movement to various sectors across India.
Avoidance of Bureaucratic Structure: Dr. Kurien’s insistence on locating the NDDB in Anand proved advantageous. This strategic decision enabled the board to steer clear of the traditional bureaucratic framework. As a result, the NDDB operated as an institution that was better aligned with its objectives and exhibited greater efficiency.
Expansion of Cooperatives: The NDDB’s efforts extended beyond dairy to encompass a broader range of agricultural products. One notable outcome was the creation of the ‘Dhara’ brand, which focused on vegetable oil production. Through these endeavors, the cooperative model spread to different regions of India, positively impacting diverse agricultural sectors.

The NDDB’s establishment and subsequent initiatives played a crucial role in replicating the success of the Amul cooperative and furthering the cooperative movement in India’s agricultural landscape. This expansion not only boosted rural development but also empowered farmers across various sectors.

Operation Flood was a monumental dairy development program initiated in 1970 by the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) of India. Here are the key points about Operation Flood:

Origin and Design: The program was conceived by the NDDB in 1969 as a comprehensive strategy to establish a robust, self-sustained national dairy industry. It aimed to integrate rural milk production with urban milk marketing by leveraging the cooperative model.
International Collaboration: In 1970, Operation Flood was officially launched with technical support from international bodies like the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). These organizations provided crucial expertise and resources to facilitate the program’s implementation.
Adaptation of Anand Model: Operation Flood drew heavily from the successful cooperative model pioneered by the Kaira Union in Anand. The personnel and expertise from the Kaira Union were instrumental in guiding and implementing the program on a larger scale across the country.
Objectives of Operation Flood:
- Increasing Milk Production: Operation Flood aimed to significantly boost milk production in India. The term “Flood” symbolized the program’s goal of generating a substantial surge in milk supply.
- Direct Linkage between Producers and Consumers: By eliminating intermediaries, Operation Flood sought to establish a direct connection between milk producers and consumers. This streamlined approach aimed to ensure fair returns to both parties.
- Rural Income Augmentation: The program aimed to enhance the income of rural milk producers by providing them with a platform to market their products effectively. This was expected to contribute to poverty alleviation and economic empowerment.
- Affordable Milk Prices for Consumers: Operation Flood aimed to stabilize milk prices, ensuring that consumers received milk at reasonable rates while simultaneously providing fair compensation to the producers.

Operation Flood was implemented in three phases spanning nearly two decades, making it one of the world’s largest dairy development programs. The initiative played a pivotal role in transforming India from a milk-deficient nation to one of the largest milk producers globally, significantly impacting rural livelihoods and the national economy.

Operation Flood Implementation Phases:

Phase 1 (1970-1980):
- Objectives: This phase aimed to establish a strong foundation for the dairy industry in India. It focused on linking the primary milk-producing regions to major urban centers.
- Financing: The initial phase was funded through the sale of skimmed milk powder and butter oil provided by the European Union (then known as the European Economic Community) via the World Food Programme.
- Implementation: Operation Flood Phase 1 was meticulously planned and executed by the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB). It entailed negotiations with the European Economic Community regarding the specifics of their assistance.
- Coverage: This phase established crucial mother dairies in four major metropolitan cities: Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai. It connected 18 of India’s primary milk-sheds to these urban centers.
Phase 2 (1981-1985):
- Objectives: Building on the accomplishments of Phase 1, the second phase aimed to further expand and fortify the dairy industry. It aspired to create a modern, self-sustaining dairy sector capable of meeting the nation’s growing demand for milk and milk products.
- Implementation: This phase extended the coverage of Operation Flood, intensifying its impact and reach.
Phase 3 (1985-1996):
- Objectives: The third phase of Operation Flood focused on the consolidation of the dairy cooperative movement in India. It emphasized the expansion and enhancement of infrastructure to facilitate the procurement and marketing of the increased milk production.
- Areas of Emphasis:
  - Research and Development: There was a heightened emphasis on R&D in areas like animal health, animal nutrition, and veterinary services, including the development of vaccines.
  - Strengthening Veterinary Services: Efforts were directed towards improving veterinary services, which played a pivotal role in enhancing the health and productivity of livestock.
  - Expansion of Infrastructure: The phase saw substantial investment in expanding and reinforcing the necessary infrastructure for the procurement and distribution of milk and milk products.

Each phase of Operation Flood contributed significantly to India’s dairy industry, leading to a remarkable transformation in the nation’s milk production capacity and self-sufficiency in dairy products.

Critical Analysis of Operation Flood:

Positives:

Increased Milk Production: The program resulted in a significant boost in milk production, increasing from a growth rate of 0.7% to over 4%. This marked improvement in production contributed to India’s self-sufficiency in milk.
Poverty Alleviation: Dairying became a vital source of income for small and landless farmers. Approximately 60% of the beneficiaries were from this segment, showcasing its impact on poverty reduction.
Access to Technical Inputs: The program provided farmers with crucial technical inputs like artificial insemination, balanced cattle feed, improved fodder varieties, veterinary services, and more. These inputs played a pivotal role in enhancing livestock productivity.
Empowerment of Women: Operation Flood, in collaboration with organizations like the Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), established numerous women-led dairy cooperative societies. This led to increased participation of women in decision-making processes.
Growth of Dairy Machinery Industry: The initiative spurred the growth of the indigenous dairy equipment manufacturing industry, which later expanded to include exports of dairy equipment.
Employment Opportunities: Operation Flood created new avenues for employment and income generation, particularly in rural areas. This contributed to a slowdown in the migration of rural populations to urban centers.
Export of Milk Products: India transitioned from being reliant on imports and gifts of milk powder to becoming a milk surplus nation. Within a decade of the program’s launch, India began exporting milk powder.
Elimination of Intermediaries: Operation Flood successfully reduced the influence of middlemen who were siphoning off profits from dairy farmers by imposing unprofitable prices.

Negatives:

Uneven Distribution of Benefits: The benefits of Operation Flood were concentrated in a few states, with states like Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Gujarat contributing the majority of the increased milk production. Even within these states, the benefits were often concentrated in specific pockets, primarily benefiting the affluent.
Strengthening of Intermediaries: Instead of eliminating exploitative intermediaries, the cooperative model inadvertently empowered them, enabling them to emerge as significant political power centers.
Lack of Transparency in NDDB: The National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), which led the program, faced criticism for its lack of transparency and limited scrutiny from the government.

Overall, Operation Flood made substantial contributions to India’s dairy industry and rural economy, but it also faced challenges and limitations in achieving equitable benefits and overcoming systemic issues.

The Green Revolution:

The Green Revolution refers to a significant period of agricultural transformation marked by the adoption of modern farming techniques and technologies, leading to a substantial increase in agricultural productivity. This phenomenon played a pivotal role in India’s transition from a food-deficit nation to a self-sufficient and eventually surplus one. Driven by technological advancements, particularly in the field of wheat and rice production, the Green Revolution had profound socio-economic and political implications.

Dr. M.S. Swaminathan’s Leadership:

Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, an eminent Indian geneticist and biologist, played a crucial role in leading and advocating for the Green Revolution in India.

Context and Need:

In the period between 1949 and 1965, Indian agriculture experienced a growth rate of approximately 3%. However, this growth proved insufficient to meet the escalating food demands due to a surge in population post-independence.
The situation was exacerbated by the steady rise in per capita income and the allocation of significant resources towards planned industrialization. These factors collectively strained the agricultural sector.

Food Shortage and Imports:

By the early 1960s, India faced a critical food shortage, necessitating large-scale food imports. Controversially, India entered into an agreement with the USA under the PL-480 scheme in 1956 for food imports. This dependency on imports continued to grow.

Challenges and Crises:

The geopolitical tensions, including the wars with China (1962) and Pakistan (1965), further strained India’s resources and agricultural productivity.
The droughts of 1965-66 added to the challenges, causing a decline in domestic agricultural production and leading to the emergence of famine-like conditions. This, in turn, contributed to rising food prices.

The Green Revolution, therefore, emerged as a strategic response to these challenges, focusing on the introduction of high-yielding varieties of crops, improved irrigation practices, and the adoption of modern agricultural technologies. It aimed to significantly enhance agricultural productivity, ensuring food security for India’s burgeoning population. The Green Revolution’s success lay in its ability to substantially increase crop yields, particularly for wheat and rice, and create a strong foundation for India’s agricultural self-sufficiency.

Threat from the USA:

During this period, India’s geopolitical stance, including its condemnation of American actions in the Vietnam War and its war with Pakistan in 1965, led to strained relations with the United States. The U.S. sympathized with Pakistan during the conflict and saw India as leaning towards the Soviet Union, further complicating bilateral ties.
In an attempt to pressure India to align with its economic interests, the U.S. threatened to halt food exports to India. This move was significant, as India had been relying on these exports to meet its food demands.

Shift Towards Self-Reliance:

Faced with external pressures and challenges, India made economic self-reliance, particularly in food production, a top priority. Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri, along with Indira Gandhi, supported the implementation of the New Agriculture Strategy.

Key Focus Areas of the New Agriculture Strategy:

High Yield Variety (HYV) Seeds (Mexican Dwarf Wheat): The strategy emphasized the adoption of high-yielding varieties of seeds, such as the Mexican dwarf wheat, which were known for their increased productivity.
Chemical Fertilizers and Pesticides: The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides was encouraged to enhance soil fertility and protect crops from pests and diseases.
Agricultural Machinery: The strategy aimed at the widespread adoption of modern agricultural machinery, including tractors, pump-sets, and other mechanized equipment, to improve productivity.
Soil Testing Facilities: Access to soil testing facilities was provided to help farmers make informed decisions about soil health and nutrient management.
Agricultural Education Programmes: Efforts were made to enhance agricultural education and training to equip farmers with modern techniques and best practices.
Institutional Credit and Infrastructure Support: The strategy focused on providing institutional credit to farmers, particularly in areas with reliable irrigation facilities. Additionally, support was given to develop essential agricultural infrastructure.

This concerted effort towards self-reliance in agriculture marked a significant shift in India’s economic policy, ultimately leading to a notable increase in agricultural productivity and food security. The New Agriculture Strategy played a crucial role in laying the foundation for India’s Green Revolution, further solidifying the country’s position as a self-sufficient food producer.

Other Measures Taken:

Increased Government Investment in Agriculture: There was a substantial increase in government investment in the agriculture sector. This infusion of funds was directed towards various aspects of agriculture, including research, infrastructure development, and the provision of necessary resources to farmers.
Assured Markets at Remunerative Prices: The government took measures to ensure that farmers had access to assured markets where they could sell their produce at profitable prices. This was crucial in providing economic security to farmers.
Establishment of Agriculture Prices Commission: In 1965, the Agriculture Prices Commission was established. Its primary role was to recommend appropriate prices for agricultural produce like wheat and rice. This helped in stabilizing prices and ensuring fair returns to farmers.
Transformation into Commission for Agriculture Costs and Prices (CACP): In 1985, the Agriculture Prices Commission was renamed the Commission for Agriculture Costs and Prices (CACP). Its mandate expanded to include the recommendation of minimum support prices (MSPs) for multiple food-grains. This move aimed to provide a safety net for farmers, guaranteeing them a minimum price for their crops.
Increase in Gross Capital Formation in Agriculture: These government initiatives led to a notable increase in gross capital formation in the agriculture sector. This refers to the accumulation of physical and financial assets in agriculture, which is essential for sustained growth and development in the sector.

These measures collectively played a pivotal role in transforming India’s agricultural landscape. They not only ensured economic stability for farmers but also laid the foundation for long-term sustainability and growth in the agriculture sector. The combination of technological advancements, policy reforms, and increased investments contributed significantly to the success of the Green Revolution in India.

Critical Analysis:

Positives:

Increase in Agricultural Production: The Green Revolution led to a significant increase in food production, resulting in improved food availability and marketable surplus.
Decrease in Food-Grain Imports: The self-sufficiency achieved through the Green Revolution reduced India’s dependence on food imports, enhancing its food security.
Food-Grain Exports: India transitioned from a food-deficit nation to a surplus country, enabling it to export food-grains by the 1980s.
Prosperity for Farmers: The higher yields and increased production translated into higher incomes for farmers, contributing to their prosperity.
Rural Employment: Multiple cropping and the growth of agro-industries created more employment opportunities, benefiting the rural population.
Poverty Alleviation: The surplus generated by the Green Revolution provided the government with resources to implement employment generation schemes, significantly contributing to poverty alleviation.
Industrial Growth: The demand for agriculture-related equipment and inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides, stimulated industrial growth.
Capitalist Farming: The change in farmers’ attitudes towards agriculture, characterized by increased investments, indicated a shift towards capitalist farming.

Negatives:

Regional Disparities: The benefits of the Green Revolution were unevenly distributed, with certain regions like Punjab, Haryana, and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu reaping most of the gains. Many other regions, particularly in the East and arid areas, saw limited impact.
Focus on Food Crops: The Green Revolution primarily focused on food-grains like wheat and rice, neglecting major commercial crops like cotton, jute, tea, and sugarcane.
Social Inequality: The gains of the Green Revolution were skewed towards larger, wealthier farmers, exacerbating social inequality and leaving smallholders and tenants at a disadvantage.
Rural Unemployment: Mechanization of agriculture led to the displacement of labor-intensive practices, resulting in rural unemployment, particularly affecting agricultural laborers and landless farmers.
Environmental Degradation: Intensive use of chemical inputs, including fertilizers and pesticides, led to environmental degradation. Over-irrigation in some regions resulted in groundwater depletion and soil salinization.

Conclusion:

The Green Revolution played a crucial role in making India self-sufficient in food production, bringing about socio-economic changes and reducing food imports. However, it also raised environmental and socio-economic challenges. As India moves towards a potential Second Green Revolution, it is essential to learn from the experiences of the first one. Implementing environmentally sustainable agricultural practices is vital, especially in the face of climate change. Balancing agricultural productivity with environmental stewardship remains a critical challenge for the future.

The Food Corporation of India (FCI)

It plays a vital role in India’s food security and agricultural support system. The Food Corporation of India (FCI) was set up in 1965, under the Food Corporations Act 1964. Here’s a summary of its achievements, challenges, and prospects:

Achievements:

Increased Procurement: FCI has successfully increased the level of procurement of food-grains, which helps in ensuring stable prices and adequate stocks.
Reduced Dependence on Imports: FCI’s efforts have significantly reduced India’s dependence on food imports, contributing to the country’s self-sufficiency.
Price Support for Farmers: By purchasing food-grains at government-fixed minimum support prices (MSP), FCI prevents prices from falling to unremunerative levels for farmers, providing them with price stability.
Public Distribution System (PDS): FCI is responsible for the distribution of food grains throughout the country, which forms the backbone of the Public Distribution System (PDS), ensuring food availability to economically disadvantaged sections.
National Food Security: FCI maintains a buffer stock of food grains, ensuring national food security by having strategic reserves in case of emergencies.
Inflation Control: FCI’s operations help stabilize food prices and control inflationary pressures in the market.
Enhanced Storage Capacity: It has contributed to increasing India’s scientific storage capacity, helping in preserving food grains efficiently.

Challenges:

Rising Costs: The increasing procurement prices of food-grains have raised the cost of FCI’s operations, affecting its financial sustainability.
Storage and Distribution Costs: The FCI faces challenges related to the rising costs of storage and distribution, especially considering the vast geographical area of India.
Excess Stock: Accumulation of excess food-grain stocks can lead to wastage, making efficient stock management crucial.
Declining Issue Prices: The issue prices for food grains through PDS have been kept low to support food affordability for the poor. This has impacted FCI’s profits and financial sustainability.

Prospects:

Decentralized Procurement: The Shanta Kumar Panel’s recommendation for a decentralized procurement system may help in streamlining the procurement process and reducing operational costs.
Restructuring Debt: The recommendation to restructure FCI’s debt to reduce the interest burden could make its operations more financially viable.
Pending Government Action: The government is yet to accept and implement these recommendations. Their acceptance and subsequent action will determine the prospects and efficiency of FCI in the future.

In summary, the FCI has made significant contributions to India’s food security, agricultural support, and price stability. However, it faces financial and operational challenges that need to be addressed for long-term sustainability. The pending recommendations and reforms will play a crucial role in shaping FCI’s future efficiency and effectiveness.

Lai Bahadur Shastri Years: Critical Analysis

Achievements:

Green Revolution and White Revolution: Shastri’s initiation of the Green Revolution and the establishment of the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) laid the foundation for India’s self-sufficiency in food production and the dairy industry’s transformation, leading to the White Revolution.
Successful Handling of the 1965 Indo-Pak War: Shastri’s leadership during the 1965 war with Pakistan prevented the annexation of Kashmir. While the outcome was indecisive, it boosted national morale and reinforced the strength of the Indian Army.
Relevance of ‘Jai Jawan Jai Kisan’ Slogan: Shastri’s slogan “Jai Jawan Jai Kisan” (Hail the Soldier, Hail the Farmer) remains pertinent in India, emphasizing the importance of both the defense forces and agricultural sector.
Initiation of Nuclear Talks: While Shastri opposed immediate nuclear weapon acquisition, his tenure saw the initiation of discussions regarding India’s nuclear capabilities, marking an important step in the country’s strategic thinking.
Establishment of the Prime Minister’s Secretariat (PMO): Shastri established his own Prime Minister’s Secretariat, which later evolved into the influential Prime Minister’s Office (PMO) in Indian governance.

Criticism:

Policy Drift and Unresolved Issues: Shastri’s tenure was criticized for a perceived policy drift, with several significant issues left unresolved. For instance, the matter of the Official Language policy remained pending, and the demand for a separate state in Punjab was not decisively addressed, leading to later escalations.
Limited Economic Growth: Except for agriculture, the economic growth rate during Shastri’s tenure remained relatively low at around 3.5%, often referred to as the “Hindu growth rate.” There was a need for more substantial progress in other sectors.

Conclusion:

Despite some policy indecision during Shastri’s term, his leadership played a crucial role in making India self-sufficient in food production and transforming it into an exporter of food grains. These foundations were instrumental in achieving later industrial growth. Shastri’s legacy, particularly in the fields of agriculture and defense, remains significant in India’s history.

FAQs

Q1: Who was Lal Bahadur Shastri?

A1: Lal Bahadur Shastri was the second Prime Minister of independent India, succeeding Jawaharlal Nehru after he died in 1964.

Q2: What were the major achievements of Lal Bahadur Shastri during his tenure?

A2: Shastri is best known for his leadership during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, where he coined the slogan “Jai Jawan Jai Kisan” (“Hail the soldier, Hail the farmer”) to boost morale. He also initiated the White Revolution, aiming for self-sufficiency in milk production.

Q3: How did Lal Bahadur Shastri contribute to India’s agricultural sector?

A3: Shastri played a significant role in promoting agricultural growth through various policies, including the Green Revolution, which aimed to increase agricultural productivity through the use of high-yielding varieties of crops and modern farming techniques.

Q4: What was Lal Bahadur Shastri’s stance on social justice and equality?

A4: Shastri advocated for social justice and equality, emphasizing the importance of eradicating poverty and promoting inclusivity in society. He introduced policies aimed at uplifting the marginalized sections of society and improving their living standards.

Q5: How did Lal Bahadur Shastri’s tenure as Prime Minister come to an end?

A5: Lal Bahadur Shastri passed away suddenly in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, in 1966, shortly after signing the Tashkent Agreement to resolve the Indo-Pakistani conflict. His death remains shrouded in mystery, with various theories surrounding the circumstances.

In case you still have your doubts, contact us on 9811333901.

For UPSC Prelims Resources, Click here

For Daily Updates and Study Material:

Join our Telegram Channel – Edukemy for IAS

1. Learn through Videos – here
2. Be Exam Ready by Practicing Daily MCQs – here
3. Daily Newsletter – Get all your Current Affairs Covered – here
4. Mains Answer Writing Practice – here

Lal Bahadur Shastri Years – UPSC Post-Independence Notes