Mahajanapadas and Rise of Magadha – UPSC Ancient History Notes

During the 6th century BCE (second urbanisation era), 16 ancient kingdoms and republics called Mahajanapadas appeared in northern India. The term ‘Mahajanapadas’ means ‘great kingdoms‘ or ‘great states‘.

It means ‘vast realm‘ in Sanskrit, combining ‘maha’ for ‘great’ and ‘janapada’ for ‘foothold of a people’.”

Table of Contents

The 16 Mahajanapadas

Geographical Factor: The 16 Mahajanapadas were mostly situated in what is now Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
Types: They included both monarchies (Rajyas) and non-monarchical states known as Ganas or Sanghas.
Source of Information: The Anguttara Nikaya, a Buddhist scripture from the Sutta Pitaka, sheds light on the social, political, and economic conditions of ancient India during that time.
Other sources:
- The Mahavastu, a Buddhist work
- Bhagavati Sutra, a Jaina work, provides differing lists of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, with some including Vanga and Malaya.
Around this era, the use of iron tools became widespread, aiding the clearing of forests in the Gangetic plains and leading to eastward civilization expansion.
- Iron tools improved agricultural practices, resulting in surplus food production used for the needs of kings for military and administrative purposes.
An agrarian economy allowed people to settle and expand into neighbouring regions.
Sixteen prominent Mahajanapadas emerged, including both monarchical and republican states.
Mahajanapadas Monarchies and Republics –

Monarchies:

Gandhara, Kamboja, Kashi, Vatsa, Avanti, Chedi, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Anga, Kosala, Magadha, Surasena

Republics:

Asmaka, Malla, Vajji

The monarchs had supreme authority in some Mahajanapadas, while republican states were governed by assemblies of senior citizens, known as the Gana-parishad, which made administrative decisions.

Monarchies

1.Kashi

Kashi was among the foremost and most dominant of the sixteen Mahajanapadas.
Around 450 BCE, it emerged as a significant town with its capital at Varanasi.
Renowned for its cotton textiles and horse market, it played a role in the downfall of the Videhan monarchy.
River Varuna in the north and river Assi in the south bounded ancient Kashi.
Kashi frequently clashed with the kingdoms of Kosala, Magadha, and Anga. Despite defeating Kosala initially, it was eventually conquered by Kosala and later annexed by Ajatasatru to Magadha.

2.Kosala

The Shatpath Brahman provides insights into the Kosala Mahajanapada, with its capital at Shravasti, located northwest of Magadha in present-day eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Kosala was bounded by the Gomati River in the west, the Sarpika or Syandika River in the south, the Sadanira (Gandak) River in the east, and the Nepal hills in the north.
Ayodhya, Saketa, and Shravasti were the key cities in Kosala, and its kings supported both Brahmanism and Buddhism.
King Prasenjit of Kosala was contemporaneous with Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of Magadha. A conflict over Kashi ensued due to family disputes, resulting in several battles and reconciliations.
- Despite not embracing Buddhism, a Bharhut sculpture indicated friendly relations between Prasenjit and Buddha.
Eventually, during Ajatasatru’s rule, Magadha annexed Kosala after Prasenjit’s demise. Kosala also encompassed the tribal republican territory of the Sakyas of Kapilvastu, identified with Piprahwa in Basti district, close to Lumbini in Nepal, the birthplace of Gautam Buddha.

3. Anga

Anga was an ancient region, referenced in Brahmanical works like the Aitareya Brahmana, the Mahabharata, the Puranas, and the Ramayana.
Located east of Magadha and west of the Raj Mahal hills, its capital was at Champa, corresponding to modern-day districts of Munger and Bhagalpur.
It was known for its wealth and commerce, with its merchants frequently visiting Suvarnabhumi.
During Bimbisara’s rule, Anga was annexed to Magadha, marking the sole conquest by Bimbisara.

4.Magadha

The name Magadha is first found in the Atharvaveda and is among the prominent Mahajanapadas.
Positioned between Anga and Vatsa, it corresponds to modern Patna and Gaya districts in Bihar and eastern parts of Bengal.
Bounded by the Ganga and Son rivers in the north and west, the Vindhyas outcrop in the south, and the Champa River in the east.
Initially, the capital was Rajagriha or Girivraja, guarded by five hills. Later, it shifted to Pataliputra.
Magadha gained prominence under the rule of Bimbisara and Ajatsatru, encountering conflicts with neighbouring Licchavis and Vajjis.
Pataligama, an ancient site of Pataliputra, witnessed the construction of a fort by Ajatasattu’s ministers to counter the Vajjis.
The ancient city of Giribbaja was encircled by five hills named Isigili, Vepulla, Yebhara, Pandava, and Gijjhkuta.

5.Vatsa

Vatsa traces its origins to the Rig Vedic period, believed to be an offshoot of the Kurus who settled in Kaushambi, corresponding to modern-day Allahabad and Mirzapur in UP.
Kaushambi served as the prosperous capital, serving as a significant trade hub for goods and passengers from the south and the west.
Udayana, the sixth-century BCE ruler, engaged in conflicts with Magadha’s king Ajatasatru and Avanti’s king Pradyota, eventually forming alliances through matrimonial ties.
Initially opposed to Buddhism, Udayana later embraced it and made it the state religion.
During Palaka’s reign, Vatsa was incorporated into the Avanti kingdom.

6.Avanti

The Avanti kingdom encompassed modern Malwa, with Ujjayini initially serving as the capital of northern Avanti and Mahissmati as the capital of Southern Avanti. Later, Ujjayini (modern Ujjain) became the capital of the unified Avanti.
Avanti was divided into the north and south by the Netravati river.
Chanda Pradyota, the ruler during Buddha’s time, was known for his fierceness but later embraced Buddhism.
Avanti emerged as a significant Buddhist centre.
Ultimately, the Magadha Empire annexed the kingdom of Avanti under the rule of Sishunaga.

7.Gandhara

Gandhara was situated roughly in the area of modern Kashmir, extending up to the Kabul valley.
Taxila served as its capital and was renowned as a prominent centre of learning where scholars from all over the world gathered.
Positioned on the Uttarapatha, it was a hub for commercial activities.
According to Buddhist tradition, Gandhara King Pukkusati exchanged gifts with Bimbisara of Magadha and travelled to meet the Buddha on foot.
Later, it became the twentieth province of the Achaemenid Empire (Persian) as per the Greek historian Herodotus.

8.Kamboja

Kamboja was a country neighbouring Gandhara in the far North-West with Dwarka as its capital.
It is often linked with Gandhara in both literature and inscriptions, mentioned in Yaska’s Nirukta and Ashoka’s edicts alongside Yona as frontier provinces.
Prior to 530 BCE, it was conquered by Cyrus, the Achaemenid emperor of Persia, who reportedly destroyed the Kamboja city of Kapisi (modern Begram).
During Kautilya’s era, Kamboja transitioned from a monarchy to a republic.
Kamboja was renowned for its horses throughout Indian history, with Sumangalavilasini depicting it as the home of horses.

9.Matsya

Matsyas were one of the notable Ksatriya tribes within the early Vedic Aryan community in India.
A hymn in the Rigveda recounts an attack on the Matsyas by the renowned king Turvasa.
The Matsyas or the Matsya kingdom are mentioned in various texts such as the Satapatha Brahmana, the Kausitaki Upanisad, the Mahabharata, the Padma Purana, and the Visnudharmottara Mahapurana.
Their capital was at Viratnagar, and their territory roughly corresponds to the former state of Jaipur in Rajasthan, including a portion of Bhagalpur.

10.Kurus

The Kurus were a significant and ancient Indo-Aryan Ksatriya tribe.
Their capital was at Hastinapur, and their territory roughly corresponds to modern Delhi and the adjoining doab region.
While the Kurus were highly important during the later Vedic period, their prominence had diminished by the sixth century BCE.

11.Panchala

The Panchala Mahajanapada was situated in the Rohilkhand and parts of the Central Doab (modern districts of Bareilly, Badaun, Aligarh, etc.).
Panchala was divided into northern Panchala with its capital at Ahicchatra (Bareilly district) and southern Panchala with Kampilya as its capital.
The well-known city of Kannauj was within the kingdom of Panchala.
By the 6th century BCE, the prominence of Panchala had faded.

12.Chedi

The kingdom of the Chedis was located approximately in the eastern areas of Bundelkhand and nearby regions.
Sotthivati (Suktimati) served as its capital, likely situated in the Banda district of Madhya Pradesh.
The Chedi tribe has an ancient history among the Ksatriyas during the early Vedic times.
The Chedi country was located near the Yamuna River, adjacent to the Kurus’ territory.
It had close ties with the Matsya and Kashi kingdoms. In the Mahabharata, it is referred to as Suktimati or Suktisahvaya in Sanskrit.

13.Surasena

The Surasenas were centered around their capital at Mathura, situated along the Yamuna River at the crossroads of important trade routes.
Despite their strategic location, the fragmented political structure and diverse terrain hindered the formation of a strong kingdom.
The Mahabharata and the Ramayana reference the Surasenas alongside neighbouring tribes such as Salvas and Kuru-Panchalas.
Mathura is specifically highlighted in Buddhist texts as the capital of the Surasena kingdom, referred to as Madhura.

Republics (Gana-Sanghas)

1.Vajjis (Vrijji)

The Vajji confederacy comprised eight clans, including the Videhas and the Lichchhavis, each with its own capital like Mithila and Vaishali.
Located north of the Ganga, the Vajji territory extended to the Nepal hills in Bihar, with the Gandak River marking its western boundary and the Koshi and Mahananda Rivers defining its eastern limit.
Following the decline of the Videhan monarchy, the Vajji confederation likely emerged as a republic during the time of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha.
Ajatasatru, the king of Magadha, is believed to have brought about the destruction of this confederacy.

2.Mallas

The Mallas’ territory was split into two divisions, each governed from the cities of Kusinara (linked to Kasia in Gorakhpur) and Pava (modern Padrauna).
These cities hold significance in both Buddhism and Jainism, with Kusinara being the place of Buddha’s passing and Pawapuri being the site of Mahavira’s nirvana.

3.Asmaka (Assaka)

The kingdom of Assaka (Asmaka) was positioned close to the Godavari River, with its capital located at Patali or Potna in present-day Maharashtra.
According to the Anguttara Nikaya, the region was known for its wealth, prosperity, and abundance of food and gems, eventually gaining commercial importance.

Different Aspects of the Age of Mahajanapadas

Emergence of new types of Towns

Mahanagara: big cities like Kashi, Kaushambi, Shravasti, etc.
Rajdhani: Capital cities such as Rajagriha, Patliputra, etc.
Pura (Nagara): fortified towns
Nigama: Market towns
Nagarka: small towns

Three types of villages

Typical villages: mixed castes, communities, most villages fell under this category
Suburban villages: Craft villages, e.g., Chariotmakers’ villages, Carpenter’s village (Vaddhaki-grama)
Border Villages (Aramika-Grama): situated on the periphery of the countryside
Brahmadeyas: villages granted to Brahmanas

Emergence of Guilds (association of craftsmen or merchants)

Artisans and merchants organised themselves into respective guilds
Sethi was a high-level businessman.
Vessas (merchant streets): areas where artisans and merchants resided
Trade routes:
- Uttarapatha (Taxila to Rajagriha and later extended to Tamrilipti) and Dakshinapatha

Use of Money

Early series of punch-marked coins called Nishka and Satamana, primarily made up of Silver, with a few copper coins.

Taxes

Bali (voluntary payment) became compulsory, and Bali-adhyaksha appointed to collect it
One-sixth of the produce paid by peasants as tax

Agriculture

Agrarian Expansion aided by Iron ploughshare and fertile plains
Crops: Rice (paddy transplantation widely practised), Barley, Pulses, Millets, Cotton, and Sugarcane.

Administrative System

Parishad (advisory council of King consisting exclusively of Brahmanas)
Officials: Kammikas, Shulk-adhyaksha, Rajabhatas

Legal and Judicial System

Tribal laws replaced by Civil and Criminal law based on Varna distinctions
Crime committed by Shudras punished severely, crimes by Brahmanas treated lightly
Criminal laws based on retributions (‘an eye for an eye‘)

Kinship

Strong Kinship ties observed, even among Monks who were supposed to renounce family ties.

Condition of Women

Subordination of women through Patriarchal control and an endogamous caste system
Defined ideal code of conduct and roles for women.

Pottery

Pottery shifted from Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture to North Black Polished Ware (NBPW Phase).

PGW and NBPW

Painted Grey Ware (PGW) (1000-700 BC) was made of well-prepared clay on a wheel, typically grey in colour, and decorated with black or red geometric patterns.
- The limited range of PGW shapes includes various bowls, dishes, and vases, representing the deluxe ware among a mix of different ceramics found in the Ghaggar and Indo-Gangetic regions during the Early Iron Age in India.
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) (600-200 BC) marked the start of the second phase of urbanisation in India. It was a glossy and shiny type of pottery, technically the finest of its time, with a polished surface resembling glaze in shades from jet black to deep grey or metallic blue due to iron content. NBPW fragments have been discovered from the Gangetic plains to the northern Deccan.

Art & Architecture

Unique art and architecture in Mahajanapadas.
Construction of stupas, temples, and palaces.
Intricate carvings and sculptures reflecting cultural and religious beliefs.

What factors lead to the creation of Mahajanapadas?

Settlement of tribes

Janas settled in various regions, shifting loyalty from Jana to Janapada.

New agricultural tools

Introduction of advanced tools increased agricultural production.

Sovereign ruler

The king governed, levied taxes, and maintained law and order.

Transition from Janpada to Mahajanapadas:

Meaning:

Janapada meant the place where the tribe settled. Janapadas competed for resources and political dominance.

Political rivalry:

Some janapadas extended territories, evolving into Mahajanapadas.

Mahajanapadas:

Represented territorial kingdoms ruling over people (Jana).

Centralised administration:

King headed the government with centralised administration.

What is the significance of the Mahajanapadas with regard to early Indian History?

Rise of powerful rulers and territorial states
Shift towards urbanisation with the development of capital cities
Formation of political alliances for security and mutual benefit
Flourishing trade and commerce with the establishment of new trade routes
Long-lasting influence on later Indian history in various aspects such as politics, society, and economy.

What were the causes of decline of Mahajanapadas?

Weak rulers unable to maintain the empire’s vast territories
Economic decline due to deforestation, soil exhaustion, and neglect of irrigation works
Frequent attacks from foreign invaders weakening the military and economy
Regional revolts against the centralised rule of Magadha
Succession disputes and civil wars leading to internal instability and vulnerability to external attacks

Magadhan Ascendancy

Magadha (modern day Bihar), Kosala, Vatsa, and Avanti were the most powerful among the sixteen Mahajanapadas and fought for supremacy for a century.
- Magadha, led by Bimbisara and later Ajatshatru, emerged victorious, solidifying the monarchical system in the Ganges plain.
- Bimbisara’s marriage alliances aided his expansionist policy, including the conquest of Anga and parts of Kashi.
- Ajatshatru succeeded Bimbisara, defeating Prasenajit and annexing Kashi, followed by Udayin, who established Patliputra as the new capital.
- The Sisunaga dynasty succeeded the Haryanka dynasty, conquering Avanti and incorporating it into the Magadha empire, ending the long-standing rivalry.
- The Nandas succeeded the Sisunagas, annexing Kalinga, with Mahapadma Nanda being a notable king. The Nandas reportedly halted Alexander’s army’s advance toward Magadha before being replaced by the Mauryas.

The rise of the Magadha Kingdom (600 to 300 BC) –

16 Mahajanapadas	Capital of the Mahajanapadas	Modern Location	Key Points about 16 Mahajanapadas
1. Anga	Champa	Munger and Bhagalpur	Important in Mahabharata and Atharva Veda.Strategic trade centre.Located in Bihar and West Bengal.
2. Magadha	Girivraja/Rajagriha	Gaya and Patna	Mentioned in the Atharva Veda.Centre of Jainism and Buddhism.Divided by river Champa.
3. Kasi/Kashi	Kasi (Banaras)	Varanasi	Named after rivers Varuna and Asi.Captured by Kosala.
4. Vatsa	Kaushambi	Allahabad	Known as Vamsa.Central city for economic activities.Flourished under Buddhism.
5. Kosala	Shravasti (northern), Kushavati (southern)	Eastern Uttar Pradesh	Included Ayodhya.Associated with the Ramayana.Birthplace of Gautama Buddha.
6. Shurasena	Mathura	Western Uttar Pradesh	Center of Krishna worship.Dominance of Buddha’s followers.
7. Panchala	Ahichchhatra (northern), and Kampilya (southern)	Western Uttar Pradesh	City of Kannauj within the kingdom.Transition from monarchy to republic.
8. Kuru	Hastinapur/ Indraprastha	Meerut and Southeastern Haryana	Site for Kuru Mahajanapada.Transition to republic governance.
9. Matsya	Virat Nagari	Jaipur	Located near Panchalas and Kurus.Founder was Virata. Present in Rajasthan.
10. Chedi	Shuktimati	Bundelkhand region	Mentioned in the Rigveda.Located in Central India.King Shishupala’s notable demise.
11. Avanti	Ujjaini or Mahishmati	Malwa and Madhya Pradesh	Significant in Buddhism’s rise.Capital located at Ujjaini and Mahishmati.
12. Gandhara	Taxila	Rawalpindi	Known for skilled warriors.Commercial significance.Conquered by Persians.
13. Kamboja	Poonch	Rajouri and Hajra (Kashmir), NWFP (Pakistan)	Notable for excellent horses.Mentioned in various literary sources.
14. Asmaka or Assaka	Potali/Podana	Banks of Godavari	Located south of the Vindhya Range.Included the region of Pratisthan or Paithan.
15. Vajji	Vaishali	Bihar	Powerful clans included Lichchhavis, Videhans, and Jnatrikas.Mahavira belonged to the Jnatrikas clan.
16. Malla	Kusinara	Deoria and Uttar Pradesh	Referenced in Buddhist and Jain texts. Both capitals are important in Buddhist history.

Factors – Rise of Magadha

i. Geographical factors

Magadha’s strategic location along the Gangetic valley with fertile soil and ample rainfall.
Natural fortification by the Ganga, Son, and Champa rivers.
Strategic positioning of Rajgir and Pataliputra.

ii. Economic factors

Abundance of copper and iron deposits.
Control over trade routes due to its location.
Utilisation of a large population for agriculture, mining, city–building, and military purposes.
Economic dominance facilitated by control over the Ganga and Champa rivers.

iii. Cultural factors

Magadhan society embraced a blend of Aryan and non-Aryan cultures.
Impact of Jainism and Buddhism led to philosophical and liberal advancements.

iv. Political factors

Magadha had ambitious rulers with strong standing armies.
Utilisation of advanced weaponry due to the availability of iron.
Early adoption of elephants in the military.
Establishment of a robust administrative system by major kings.

v. Religious factors

Vedic philosophy had lost its original purity.
The Vedic religion had become complicated, giving way to superstitions, dogmas, and rituals.
Brahmans’ dominance led to unrest in society, with Kshatriyas reacting against this supremacy.
The introduction of a new agricultural economy in eastern India played a role.
The Vaishyas desired to enhance their social status, given their improved economic position from the growing trade.

FAQS

1. What were the major characteristics of the Mahajanapadas?

The Mahajanapadas were characterised by the emergence of large territorial states governed by monarchies.
They marked a shift towards urbanisation and the development of political alliances.
Trade and commerce flourished, and the period witnessed the rise of powerful rulers who patronised arts and sciences.

2.How did the administrative systems of the Mahajanapadas function?

The Mahajanapadas were ruled by kings who were supported by councils of ministers. The administration was divided into various departments, such as finance, justice, and defence. The basic unit of settlement was the Grama (village), which played a crucial role in the governance of the kingdom.

3.What were the significant economic factors during the Mahajanapadas period?

Agriculture was the primary occupation, and the kingdoms had a well-established system of taxation. Trade and commerce were important, with the establishment of trade routes and the minting of coins. The period witnessed an increase in activities related to agriculture, mining, and the building of cities.

4. How did the Mahajanapadas influence the later course of Indian history?

The political, social, and economic structures that emerged during this period continued to shape Indian society for centuries. The Mahajanapadas laid the foundation for the development of various cultural and religious beliefs that later evolved into classical Indian philosophy and thought.

5.What were the key reasons for the decline of the Mahajanapadas?

Weak rulers, economic decline, and regional revolts contributed to the decline of the Mahajanapadas. Foreign invasions and succession disputes weakened the empire, making it vulnerable to both external attacks and internal instability.

6.What does “second urbanisation” refer to?

The rise of towns in the Gangetic plains due to agricultural surplus, increased crafts and trade, and a growing population. It denotes the second urbanisation phase in Indian history, following the initial urbanisation seen during the Harappan Civilization.

7.What was the origin of the Mahajanapadas?

The Mahajanapadas, a collection of sixteen ancient Indian kingdoms, emerged from the tribes (janas) during the late Vedic period. These tribes established their own territorial communities, leading to the development of permanent settlements known as ‘states’ or ‘janapadas.’

8.Why is studying the 16 Mahajanapadas of ancient India significant?

The formation of the Mahajanapadas in the sixth century BC marked the emergence of distinct states. Understanding the Mahajanapadas is crucial for comprehending the political history of North India during that period.

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