- The impact of British colonial rule on Indian society was profound across all segments. Can you imagine the experience of being governed by unfamiliar individuals year after year? Most of us cannot relate as we were born after India gained independence in 1947. However, it is important to understand that when the British conquered India and established their economic control, they encountered strong opposition from the people. There were numerous civil uprisings led by dethroned rulers, former officials of conquered Indian states, impoverished zamindars, and poligars. These rebellions united individuals from diverse ethnic, religious, and socioeconomic backgrounds against British rule.
- Causes of Popular Resistance Movements:
- Resistance arises when people believe their rights are being violated. Thus, all resistance movements originate from some form of exploitation. British rule, with its policies that undermined the rights, status, and economic positions of Indians, epitomized this exploitation. The protest and resistance were primarily led by the displaced ruling classes, peasantry, and tribal communities. For instance, when Warren Hastings attacked Banaras and imprisoned King Chet Singh to fulfil unjustified monetary and military demands, the people of Banaras rebelled. In the Madras Presidency, Poligars rebelled when the British attempted to deprive them of their military and land rights. Interference in religious practices also contributed to these popular uprisings, often exhibiting anti-Christian sentiments due to British-introduced socio-religious reforms that were unacceptable to the people. In other instances, the difference in religion between the ruling class and the exploited classes became an immediate cause for rebellion, such as in the Mappila Rebellion of the Malabar region. Here, the Muslim peasantry fought against Hindu landlords and moneylenders. The nature of this movement will be explored in the following section.
- Nature of Popular Resistance Movements:
- Violence and looting were the two prevalent methods employed by rebels to express their resistance against oppressors. Lower and exploited classes frequently targeted their exploiters, be they British, zamindars, revenue collectors, wealthy groups, or individuals. The Santhal Rebellion witnessed widespread violence, including the burning of account books belonging to moneylenders and government buildings, as well as the punishment of their exploiters.
- We learned about the British land policies designed to extract maximum profits from peasants and tribal communities. This caused considerable unrest among them, leading to the expression of their resentment against the British.
- It is crucial to understand that these popular resistance movements aimed to restore old structures and relationships that had been dismantled by the British. Each social group had its own reasons to raise its voice against the colonial powers. For example, displaced zamindars and rulers sought to regain their land and estates, while tribal groups rebelled against the interference of traders and moneylenders in their lives.
Peasant Movements And Tribal Revolts In The 19th Century
- It is intriguing to discover that starting with the Sanyasi Rebellion and Chuar Uprising in Bengal and Bihar during the 1760s, there was scarcely a year that passed without an armed opposition. Between 1763 and 1856, there were over 40 significant rebellions, in addition to numerous minor ones. However, these rebellions were predominantly localized in nature and impact. They remained disconnected from each other due to their distinct motives and causes.
Peasant Movement
- Under the Permanent Settlement, the Zamindars became the landowners. However, if they failed to pay the revenue on time, their land could be sold off. This compelled the zamindars and landlords to extract money from the peasants even in cases of crop failure. To meet their financial obligations, the impoverished peasants often borrowed money from moneylenders, also known as Mahajan. Unfortunately, they were unable to repay these loans, leading to extreme poverty and sometimes even forced labour.
- As a result, the lower and exploited classes frequently targeted their exploiters. When the zamindars failed to pay their dues, the British would seize the land and auction it to the highest bidder, often someone from urban areas. These new zamindars had little or no interest in the land itself and cared only about maximizing revenue collection. They did not invest in seeds or fertilizers to improve the land’s fertility, which had a detrimental impact on the peasants, who remained impoverished and stagnant.
- In an attempt to escape this situation, peasants began cultivating commercial crops such as indigo, sugarcane, jute, cotton, opium, and others. This marked the beginning of the commercialization of agriculture. The peasants now relied on merchants, traders, and middlemen to sell their produce during harvest time. However, this shift to commercial crops resulted in a decline in food grain production, leading to food shortages and famines. It was not surprising, then, that the famished peasants revolted against these circumstances. Let’s explore some of the peasant revolts that occurred due to British policies.
The Faqir and Sanyasi Rebellions (1770–1820s)
- The Faqir and Sanyasi Rebellions (1770–1820s) occurred as a result of British control over Bengal and the increased land revenue and exploitation of peasants that followed the establishment of British rule. The Bengal famine of 1770 led to a rebellion in which peasants, displaced zamindars, disbanded soldiers, and the poor came together. They were joined by the Sanyasis, who were wandering Muslim religious mendicants in Bengal. Two prominent Hindu leaders who supported the rebellion were Bhawani Pathak and a woman named Devi Choudhurani. The rebels attacked English factories, seizing goods, cash, arms, and ammunition. Maznoom Shah was one of their notable leaders. However, the British eventually brought the rebellion under control at the beginning of the 19th century.
- The Sanyasi Uprisings took place in Bengal between the 1770s and 1820s. They were a response to the devastating famine of 1770, which caused widespread chaos and misery. The immediate cause of the rebellion was the British-imposed restrictions on pilgrims visiting holy places, affecting both Hindus and Muslims.
The Indigo Rebellion (1859-1862)
- The Indigo Rebellion (1859-1862) arose due to the British’s pursuit of increased profits and their interference in the people’s livelihoods. Along with introducing new crops, they imposed new farming techniques and exerted heavy pressure on zamindars and peasants to pay high taxes and cultivate commercial crops. One such crop was indigo, which was grown to meet the demands of the English cloth markets. The discontent among indigo farmers stemmed from three main reasons: they were paid low prices for their indigo, it was not as profitable as food crops since both were planted simultaneously, and the cultivation of indigo depleted the soil’s fertility, leading to a decline in food stocks.
- The peasants suffered from the exploitation of traders and middlemen, who bought their goods at very low prices. To maintain their dominance and address local issues, the peasants aligned themselves with the zamindars. In response, the peasants initiated a movement in Bengal to protest against the cultivation of indigo. Hindu and Muslim peasants united in a strike and filed cases against the indigo planters. They received support from the press and missionaries. In November 1860, the government issued orders declaring it illegal to force the raiyats (peasant cultivators) to grow indigo. This marked a victory for the rebels and their cause.
The Farazi Movement (1838-1848)
- The Farazi Movement (1838-1848) was the first-ever no-tax campaign against the British government, led by Shariatullah Khan and Dadu Mian. Their group of volunteers courageously fought against the armed groups of indigo planters and zamindars. The movement succeeded in uniting all cultivators in Bengal against the tyranny and illegal exactions of the landlords.
The Wahabi Movement (1830s-1860s)
- The Wahabi Movement (1830s-1860s) was led by Syed Ahmed Barelvi of Rae Bareilly, who was strongly influenced by the teachings of Abdul Wahab of Arabia and Shah Waliullah, a saint from Delhi. Initially, the movement had a religious foundation, but it gradually evolved into a class struggle in certain regions, particularly in Bengal. Regardless of communal distinctions, peasants united against their landlords in this movement.
Significance of Peasant Revolt
- The peasant revolts had significant implications due to the aggressive economic policies of the British, which disrupted India’s traditional agrarian system and exacerbated the hardships faced by peasants. While these revolts were not explicitly aimed at overthrowing British rule, they played a crucial role in raising awareness among Indians about the need to organize and resist exploitation and oppression. They set the stage for subsequent uprisings, including the Sikh Wars in Punjab and, ultimately, the Revolt of 1857.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
1. Q: What were the major causes of popular resistance against British rule in India during the 19th and early 20th centuries?
A: The major causes of popular resistance against British rule in India were multifaceted. Economic exploitation, social and cultural oppression, and political suppression were significant factors. The introduction of exploitative economic policies such as heavy taxation, land revenue systems, and discriminatory trade practices fueled discontent among the Indian population. Socially, the imposition of British cultural norms, racial discrimination, and the undermining of traditional institutions led to widespread resentment. Politically, the denial of representative participation and the annexation of princely states fueled nationalist sentiments. These combined factors contributed to the emergence of various movements and uprisings against British rule.
2. Q: What role did leaders like Mahatma Gandhi play in the popular resistance against British rule in India?
A: Mahatma Gandhi played a pivotal role in the popular resistance against British rule through his philosophy of non-violent civil disobedience, known as Satyagraha. Gandhi’s leadership during movements like the Non-Cooperation Movement, Salt Satyagraha, and Quit India Movement galvanized the masses. His emphasis on Swadeshi, Khadi, and the principles of truth and non-violence resonated with people across different sections of society. Gandhi’s ability to unite people from diverse backgrounds under the umbrella of a non-violent struggle significantly contributed to the success of the Indian independence movement.
3. Q: How did the events like the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the Rowlatt Act contribute to intensifying the resistance against British rule?
A: The Jallianwala Bagh massacre in 1919 and the implementation of the Rowlatt Act were pivotal events that intensified the resistance against British rule. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, where British troops killed hundreds of unarmed civilians, shocked the nation and fueled anti-British sentiments. The Rowlatt Act, which curtailed civil liberties and allowed for arrest and detention without trial, was met with widespread protests. These events not only exposed the repressive nature of British rule but also galvanized public opinion against it. The atrocities committed during these incidents became rallying points for the independence movement, leading to increased unity and determination among Indians to oppose British colonialism.
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