UPSC NCERT Notes - Ancient History - Kingdoms of South India

Studying the ancient history of South India is a fascinating journey that unveils the rich tapestry of diverse cultures, powerful kingdoms, and intricate socio-political landscapes that thrived in the southern part of the Indian subcontinent. To comprehend this historical narrative effectively, aspirants of the UPSC examination turn to meticulously crafted NCERT notes that distill the essence of ancient South Indian history. These notes serve as invaluable resources, offering a comprehensive overview of the prominent kingdoms that once flourished in the region. From the Cholas to the Cheras and the Pallavas, each dynasty played a pivotal role in shaping the course of South Indian history. Exploring the political, economic, and cultural dynamics of these kingdoms not only provides aspirants with a solid foundation for their UPSC preparation but also allows them to appreciate the intricate historical nuances that continue to influence the socio-cultural fabric of present-day South India.

After the decline of the Satavahana kingdom, there was a political vacuum created in Southern India. As a result, there was the emergence of various small principalities. Among these Vakatakas, Chalukyas, Pallavas and Second Chola kingdoms were the prominent ones.
The later rulers of the Satavahana dynasty proved to be ineffectual in maintaining the expansive realms that once thrived in Southern India. Following the demise of Pulumavi IV, the last significant ruler of the Satavahana empire, it fragmented into numerous major kingdoms, including the following:

Table of Contents

Abhira Dynasty

The history of the Abhiras remains shrouded in mystery, with limited knowledge about their existence. However, it is known that Ishwarsena founded this dynasty, and they belonged to the Yaduvanshi Kshatriya clan.
Emerging as successors to the Satavahanas in the Western Deccan, they initially served in the military under the Western Satraps (Sakas).

Emperor Samudragupta of the Gupta Empire documented in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription that Abhira was a frontier kingdom that paid an annual tribute. Patanjali, in his Mahabhashya, made mention of Abhira kings.

The Gunda Inscription of AD 181 references Rudrabhuti, an Abhira leader, as the Senapati (Commander-in-Chief) of the Saka unit Sunstar and satrap Rudrasimha.
The Abhira dynasty primarily used Apabhramsa as their language, although they also supported Sanskrit. The Nasik Cave Inscription of Isvarsena is predominantly written in Sanskrit.
Numerous guilds thrived in their kingdom, attracting substantial investments for endowments.
Ishwarsena, the first independent Abhira king and son of Abhira Sivadatta, initiated an era later recognized as the Kalachuri-Chedi era.
The dynasty’s rule extended for approximately 200-300 years, concluding with Abhira Vashishthiputra Vasusena as the last ruler.

The Kadambas of Banavasi

The Kadambas (AD 345-540) marked the first indigenous dynasty to adopt Kannada, the regional language, at an administrative level.
This period, known for the broad development of the region and the elevation of Kannada as a vital language, played a crucial role in Karnataka’s history.

Key rulers of this dynasty include:

Mayurasharma

Founded in AD 345 by Mayurasharma, this dynasty established marital ties with other kingdoms and empires, including the Vakatakas and the Guptas of Central and Northern India.
Mayurasharma triumphed over the armies of the Pallavas of Kanchi, with the Kadamba power reaching its zenith during Kakusthavarma’s rule.

Santivarma

Santivarma, Mayurasharma’s successor, is renowned for his prosperous and economically developed rule.
In AD 455, he divided his kingdom, appointing his younger brother Krishnavarma to govern the Southern portion, dealing with the Pallavas. This branch is known as the Triparvata branch.

Mrigeshavarma

Mrigeshavarma, Santivarma’s son, and Kakusthavarma in the Banavasi branch ascended to the throne, facing the Pallavas and Gangas with significant success. Not only did he strive to expand his kingdom, but he also maintained marital alliances with Northern rulers like the Vakatakas and the Guptas.

Cultural Contributions of the Kadambas

The Kadambas of Banavasi, devout followers of Vedic Hinduism, left an enduring cultural legacy by constructing various temples throughout their kingdom. Among these, the Madhukeshwara temple in Banavasi stands as a renowned testament to their architectural prowess.
A distinctive feature of Kadamba architecture was the Kadamba Shikara, characterized by a stepped tower resembling a pyramid with a Kalasha crowning its summit.
The Kadambas also made history by minting coins adorned with Kannada inscriptions, marking them as the first dynasty to do so.

Decline of the Kadambas

Following Kakusthavarma, only Ravivarma (AD 485) managed to restore the kingdom to its former strength and expansiveness until AD 519.

Organization of New Kingdoms in Deccan

Between AD 300-600, several new kingdoms ascended to power in the Deccan. Noteworthy among them are:

The Vakatakas

Originating in the third century AD after the decline of the Satavahanas, the Vakataka dynasty coexisted with the Gupta dynasty and eventually declined around the same period.
Vindhyashakti, a Brahmin chieftain of limited historical documentation, founded the Vakataka dynasty.
Inscriptions associated with the Vakatakas were composed in Sanskrit and Prakrit languages, mirroring similarities with the Pallava dynasty.
The Vakatakas formed matrimonial alliances with the Guptas, the Nagas of Padmavati, the Kadambas of Karnataka, and the Vishnukundins of Andhra.
The Vakataka Empire was organized into regions known as Rashtras, each governed by called hikritas. These Rashtras, in turn, were subdivided into Vishayas, further segmented into Aharas and Bhogas.

Early Rulers of the Vakataka Dynasty

The inaugural leaders of the Vakataka dynasty include:

Vindhyashakti (AD 250-270)

Regarded as the progenitor of the Vakataka dynasty, Vindhyashakti likely held sway in Purika, located in Dakkhinapatha in present-day, Deccan). He performed several Vedic sacrifices.

Pravarasena I (AD 275-330)

He was the son and successor of Vindhyashakti and adopted several titles including Samrat, Dharmamaharaja, and Haritiputra, while all other Vakataka kings took the title of Maharaja.

His son Gautamiputra died before him and his grandson Rudrasena I succeeded him to the throne and ruled from Nandivardhana.

After Pravarasena there were two divisions of the Vakatakas taken place which are as follows:

Pravarapura-Nandivardhana Branch (Modern Nagpur, Maharashtra)

Rulers	Description
Rudrasena I	– Grandson of Pravarasena I, founder of the Nandivardhana branch of the Vakataka kingdom. – Formed a political alliance with Chandragupta and together defeated the Saka Satraps of Malwa and Kathiawar.
Prithvisena	– Ruled from AD 365-390. – Bond between Guptas and Vakatakas strengthened by the marriage alliance between Rudrasena’s son and Prabhavatigupta, daughter of Chandragupta.
Rudrasena II	– Ruled for five years. – Prabhavatigupta, his mother, ruled as regent until AD 410. The Maregaon plates describe her as the mother of two kings.
Pravarasena II	– Ruled from AD 395-440. – Largest number of Vakataka inscriptions belong to his reign.
Narendrasena	– Ruled from AD 440-460. – Married Ajihata Bhattarika, daughter of Kakutsavarman of the Kadamba dynasty.
Prithvisena	– Last known ruler of this branch of the Vakataka dynasty, ruling from AD 460-480.

Vatsagulma Branch (Modern Washim, Akola District, Maharashtra)

Rulers	Description
Sarvasena	– Son of Pravarasena I. – Renowned Prakrit poet, author of Harivijaya. – Some of his verses incorporated into the Gathasattasai. – Adopted the title Dharma-Maharaja.
Vindyashakti	– Also known as Vindhyasena. – Ruled for about 40 years, from AD 355-400.
Harisena	– Grandson of Pravarasena, ruler of the Vatsagulma branch. – Considered the ablest and great ruler. – Patronized Buddhist art and architecture; the later period caves at Ajanta showcase the high perfection and sophistication achieved under Harisena. – The dynasty ended in mysterious ways after his death.

The Chalukyas

The Chalukyas of Badami succeeded the Vakatakas in the Western Deccan, establishing their capital in Vatapi, modern-day Badami in the Bijapur district, a part of Karnataka. They governed an expansive Deccan region for approximately two centuries, from AD 543 to 753, unifying the entirety of South India.
Subsequently, they diversified into numerous autonomous ruling houses, while the primary branch continued its rule in Vatapi.
Notably, their era holds significance in Indian history due to their substantial cultural contributions.
Many historians posit that the founders of the Chalukya empire in Badami were indigenous to the modern Karnataka region.
Interestingly, the Chalukyas identify themselves as Harithiputras of Manavyasagotra in their inscriptions, sharing the same lineage as their early overlords, the Kadambas of Banavasi, making them descendants of the Kadambas.

Pulakesin I of Badami, once a vassal of the Kadamba king Krishnavarman II, seized control of the Kadamba Kingdom in 540 by overpowering his former overlord.

Sanskrit and Kannada inscriptions serve as the primary source of information about the Chalukyas of Badami.
Noteworthy among them are the Badami cave inscriptions of Mangalesa in AD 578, the Kappe Arabhatta record of AD 700, the Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple Inscription, and the Pattadakal Virupaksha Temple Inscription of Vikramaditya II—all written in Kannada.

Aihole Inscription

The Aihole Inscription of Pulakesin II in AD 634 stands as an exemplary instance of significant Sanskrit inscriptions written in the old Kannada script.
During the Chalukya reign, Kannada emerged as the predominant language in inscriptions, alongside Sanskrit.
The Chalukyas gained considerable power in the Deccan around the mid-6th century AD. The dynasty comprised two branches, namely Vatapi and Kalyani.

Chalukyas of Vatapi (Badami)

This dynasty’s rule commenced in the early 6th century AD, with its initial rulers being Jayasimha and Ranaraja. However, the first independent ruler was Pulakesin I (AD 535-566).
Pulakesin I, also known as Vallabheshva, constructed the fort of Vatapi in the Bijapur district of Karnataka and assumed the title while performing the Ashvamedha sacrifice.

Kirtivarman I (AD 566-597), Pulakesin’s son, expanded the ancestral kingdom by engaging in wars against the Kadambas of Banavasi, the Nalas of Bastar, and the Mauryas of Konkan. This led to the inclusion of a significant portion of Maharashtra under his rule.

Upon Kirtivarman’s demise, his son Pulakesin was too young to rule, resulting in his uncle Mangalesa (Kirtivarman’s brother) acting as regent. Mangalesa continued the expansion policy by invading the territory of the Kalachuri king Buddharaja.
The most renowned ruler of the dynasty was Pulakesin II (AD 611-642), also known as Satyashraya, a contemporary of Harshavardhana of Kannauj.
The Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang visited Pulakesin II’s court, and during this visit, Pulakesin II had divided his empire into three “Maharashtraku” or great provinces, each comprising 99,000 villages, as per the Aihole record.
Hiuen Tsang mentioned that Persian Sassanid Emperor Khosraw II exchanged ambassadors with Pulakesin II.
The travelogues of contemporary foreign visitors provide valuable insights into the Chalukyan empire.
The Aihole Inscription, composed in Sanskrit by Pulakesin II’s court poet Ravikirti, reveals that there were considerable external and internal disturbances, which the ruler overcame with minimal effort.
Pulakesin II’s significant triumph was the victory over Harshavardhana in AD 620. However, the Chalukyan rule faced challenges as Vikramaditya II (AD 733-746) succeeded in defeating the Pallava kings.
Unfortunately, the sovereignty of the Chalukyas came to an end around AD 757 when Kusran II (AD 746-757) lost Maharashtra to Rashtrakuta Chief Dantidurga.

Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi

Founded by Pulakesin II’s brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana, this dynasty witnessed victories under Vijayaditya III (AD 848-892) against the Pallavas, Pandyas, and Rashtrakutas.
However, their power weakened in the 10th century, leading to their alliance with the Cholas, and ultimately, Kulothunga Chola annexed the kingdom in 1076.
Initially supportive of Kannada language and literature, the Eastern Chalukyas later prioritized Telugu due to regional variations, playing a crucial role in the growth of Telugu literature.

Western Chalukyas of Kalyani

Tailapa II, a Rashtrakuta feudatory from Tardavadi, re-established Chalukya rule in the Western Deccan by overthrowing Karka II. Ruling for over two centuries, the Western Chalukyas faced constant conflicts with the Cholas and the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.

Other Notable Rulers

Satyasraya (AD 997-1008) faced a disruptive reign marked by a disastrous war with the Chola ruler Raj Raja I. Somesvara I (AD 1042-1068) engaged in a prolonged war with the Cholas, ending in defeat in the Battle of Kudai.
Somesvara II (AD 1068-1076) was a tyrannical ruler overthrown by his brother Vikramaditya II. Vikramaditya IV (AD 1076-1126) is celebrated as a notable ruler, and his 50-year reign saw the introduction of the Chalukya-Vikrama era in AD 1076.

Administration of the Chalukyas

The Chalukyan administration was highly centralized, reflecting a blend of Magadhan, Satavahana, and Kadamba administrative styles.
The empire was divided into a pyramid pattern of Maharashtrakas (provinces), Rashtrakas (Mandala), Vishaya (district), and Bhoga (group of 10 villages). Various taxes, including herjunka, kirukula, bilkode, pannaya, siddaya, and vaddaravula, supported the treasury.
Legal System The Western Chalukyas contributed to the Hindu School of Law, which included the Mitakshara and Dayabhaga systems. In Mitakshara, sons could claim property rights during their father’s lifetime, while in Dayabhaga, such rights were claimed only after the father’s death.

Literature Under Chalukyas

The Aihole Inscription of Pulakesin II (AD 634) by court poet Ravikirti, written in Sanskrit and Kannada script, stands as a classical piece of poetry, reflecting the cultural richness of the Chalukyan era.
Composed in celebration of Pulakesin II’s victory over Harshavardhana, the Western Chalukya era witnessed notable literary contributions.
Renowned Sanskrit writer Vijnaneshwara authored Mitakshara, a significant work on Hindu law during the Western Chalukya period.
King Someshvara III, a distinguished scholar, compiled an encyclopedia named Manasollasa, encompassed various arts and sciences.
Eminent scholars like Bilhana thrived during this period, and Chalukyan feudal lord Gangaraja Durvinita penned the influential grammar book Shabavatara, translating Gunadya’s Brihatkatha into Sanskrit.
Udayadeva wrote Jainendra Vyakarana, a grammar book, while Somadeva Suri composed Vitivakyamrita, focusing on morality.
Bilhana, a Sanskrit writer, contributed to Vikramdeva Charita and the poem Chaurapanchasika.
The rule of both Western and Eastern Chalukyas marked significant developments in Kannada and Telugu literature, with Adikavi Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna being prominent literary figures of this period.
Despite being Brahmanical Hindus, the Chalukyas supported other religions, fostering the progress of Jainism.
Great scholars like Bilhana and Vijnanesvara adorned the courts of later Chalukya kings.
Hiuen Tsang’s visit to the Chalukyan region during Pulakesin II’s time is documented in historical records.

Religious Life of Chalukyas

The Badami Chalukya period saw flourishing Shaivism and Vaishnavism, with the rulers being followers of Vedic Hinduism. Temples dedicated to popular Hindu deities were erected in places like Aihole.
Jainism also played a significant role, with one of the Badami Cave Temples devoted to the Jain faith. Jain Temples were constructed in the Aihole complex, known as Temple Maguti.
Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin II, dedicated a temple to the Trimurti (Hindu trinity) at Badami, showcasing a blend of Hindu religious sculptures.
Places like Badami, Aihole, Kurtukoti, and Puligere were prominent centers of learning during the Chalukyan period.

Architecture Under Chalukyas

The Badami Chalukya era significantly influenced South Indian architecture, known as Chalukyan or Karnata Dravida architecture.
In the first phase, cave temples were constructed in Aihole and Badami, featuring Vedic, Jain, and Buddhist themes.
Vedic temples included well-sculpted images of various deities like Harihara, Mahishasuramardhini, Varaha, Narasimha, Trivikrama, Vishnu seated on Anantha, and Nataraja.
The second phase witnessed temple buildings in Aihole and Badami, showcasing architectural marvels like the Lad Khan Temple, Meguti Jain Temple, Durga Temple, and Huecimalli Gudi Temple, each contributing to the rich heritage of Indian temple architecture.
Notable Dravida-style temples from this era include the Naganatha Temple at Nagaral, the Mahakutesvara Temple, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Mahakuta, and the Banantigudi Temple at Jambulingesvara in Badami.
The structural temples at Pattadakal, constructed in the eighth century and now designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, represent the pinnacle and mature phase of Badami Chalukyan architecture.
The Bhutanatha group of temples at Badami, including the well-known Sangamesvara Temple (built in AD 725), the Virupaksha Temple (AD 740-745), and the Mallikarjuna Temple (AD 740-745), showcase the Southern style.

Kalabhra Dynasty

The Kalabhra dynasty, also known as Kalappirar, Kallupura, and Kalvar, ruled the Tamil region from the third century to the sixth century AD. Their rule followed the decline of the early Cholas, Pandyas, and Chera of the Sangama age. Information about the origin and reign of the Kalabhras is uncertain and limited.
The earliest Kalabhra Inscription is the Pulankurichi epigraph of King Chendan Kurran (Kootran) in Tamil Nadu, dated to AD 270. This inscription, one of the earliest in Tamil, spans over 15 meters and discusses administrative divisions, Vedic sacrifices, and temples. The language is nearly identical to classical Tamil found in the Tolkappiyam and other Sangam texts.
The Kalabhras supported Sramana sects such as Buddhism, Jainism, and Ajivikas, particularly favoring the Digambara sect of Jainism. The twin Tamil epics, Silappatikaram (Jaina) and Manimekalai (Buddhist), were written during their patronage.
The end of the Kalabhra rule is unclear, but evidence suggests that Simhavishnu, the Pallava king, annexed the Tamil regions, removing the Kalabhras and others. This consolidation occurred around AD 575, supported by inscriptions from the sixth century and Buddhist pilgrim Hiuen Tsang, who visited the Tamil region around AD 640 but made no mention of the Kalabhras.

Pallavas

The Pallavas, possibly a local tribe, asserted their authority in Tondal Nadu, or the land of creepers. They rose to prominence during the reigns of Mahendravarman I (AD 571-630) and Narasimhavarman I (AD 630-668), dominating the Southern parts of the Telugu region and Northern parts of the Tamil region for about 600 years until the end of the ninth century.

Major Rulers of the Pallava Dynasty

Simhavishnu (AD 575-600): The first ruler of the Pallava line, Simhavishnu defeated the Kalabhras, established the Imperial Pallavas, and triumphed over rulers of Chola, Pandya, and Chera kingdoms. He worshiped Vishnu and assumed the title of Avanishimha.
Mahendravarman I (AD 600-630): Defeated by Chalukyan king Pulakesin II.
Renowned for his wit, he authored the satirical play titled Mattavilasa Prahasana. Initially, he supported Jainism but later embraced Shaivism under the influence of Thirunavukkarasar (Appar). Among the titles he assumed are Mattavilasa, Gunabhara, Chitrakarapuli, Chettakari, and Vichitrachitta.
Narasimhavarman I (AD 630-668), often known as Mamalla or the Great Wrestler, is considered the most successful Pallava king. Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava kingdom around AD 640 during his reign and noted the contentment of the people. Renowned Nayannar saints like Appar, Tirugnanasambandar, and Siruthondar lived during his rule. He founded the city of Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) and the famous rock-cut temples.
Paramesvaravarman II achieved victory against Chalukya Vikramaditya II, marking a significant event in the ongoing conflict between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas.

Conflict between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas:

The Pallavas and Chalukyas engaged in disputes over plunder, prestige, and territorial control, vying for supremacy in the region between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers.

In the reign of Pulakesin II (AD 609-642), a prominent Chalukya king, the first significant event in this prolonged conflict occurred. Although Pulakesin II nearly reached the Pallava capital, peace was brokered when the Pallavas ceded their Northern provinces to him.

Pulakesin’s subsequent invasion failed, and Pallava king Narasimhavarman (AD 630-668) captured the Chalukya capital at Vatapi around AD 642, possibly leading to Pulakesin II’s demise.

Administration Under Pallavas:

The Pallavas maintained a well-organized administrative system, with the king assuming the title Dharma-Maharaja and serving as the head of the state, judge, leader of the armed forces, and fountain of honor.
Following a monarchical system, they had a council of ministers called Amatyas. The Pallava state was divided into Kottams, each administered by officers appointed by the king.
Villages served as the basic administrative unit, with Nadu encompassing multiple villages and Nattar responsible for its administration. Ur was the smallest unit, overseen by Sabha, the village committee, whose members were known as Perumakkal.
Various types of villages, such as those with inter-caste populations, Brahmadeya, and Devadana, coexisted. Local autonomous assemblies like Sabha and Urar played crucial roles in village administration.
Land revenue constituted a major income source, supplemented by taxes on professions, marriages, salt, sugar, textiles, draught cattle, etc. Hiuen Tsang noted the hardworking nature of the people and the fertile soil, with agricultural laborers often compensated in kind.

Military and Judicial Administration Under the Pallavas:

The Pallavas maintained a robust military force, comprising infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots. Additionally, they had an effective naval system in place. Each village had its court of justice, known as Dharamasasana, presided over by the king, who was referred to as Adikarnas for town courts and Karnas for village courts.

Village Sabhas served as a judicial body to resolve civil disputes, with punishments not being overly severe, often involving fines.

Society Under the Pallavas:

The Pallava period marked a transitional phase in Southern Indian society, characterized by monumental construction, the establishment of devotional (bhakti) sects such as Alvaras and Nayanaras, and the advancement of Sanskrit learning.
While the status of women was not equivalent to that of men, it was relatively favorable. The influence of Brahmins increased significantly, leading to the consolidation of the caste system. Pallava literature referred to Shudras as Pulayar and Chandalas.

Religious Life Under the Pallavas:

Heterodox religions like Buddhism and Jainism remained active in the Pallav kingdom. Hiuen Tsang’s accounts indicate the presence of numerous Buddhist monasteries and thousands of monks and nuns following Mahayana Buddhism in Kanchi.
Jainism initially enjoyed popularity, and most Pallava kings followed both Vaishnavism and Shaivism. The seventh century saw the rise of the Nayanars and Alvars, contributing to the growth of Shaivism and Vaishnavism in what is known as the Bhakti Movement.

Education, Literature, Art, and Architecture During Pallavas Rule:

The Pallavas were patrons of learning, with the University of Kanchi serving as a center of intellectual activity, attracting students from India and abroad. Brahmanical educational institutions like Ghatikas and Mathas were linked to temples, promoting Sanskrit as the medium of instruction.
Several Sanskrit works, including Bharavi’s Kiratarjuniyam, Dandi’s Dasakumaracharita, and Mahendravarman I’s Mattavilasaprahasana, were produced during this period. Tamil literature flourished under Pallava patronage, with Tiruvelluvar, the author of Kural, belonging to this era.
The Pallavas made significant contributions to Indian art and architecture, initiating the Dravidian style. Their architectural evolution ranged from cave temples to monolithic Rathas and culminated in structural temples.
The Pancha Pandava Rathas at Mamallapuram showcased five different Dravida architectural styles. Notable examples of early structural temples include the Kallasanatha Temple at Kanchi and the Shore Temple at Mamallapuram. The Pallavas also played a role in sculptural and painting developments, with masterpieces like the Descent of Ganges at Mamallapuram and paintings at the caves of Sittannavasal.

The decline of the Pallavas:

The decline of the Pallava dynasty began under Narasimhavarman, facing threats from the Chalukyan army that invaded Kanchipuram. The last Pallava king, Aparajitavarman, succumbed to defeat at the hands of Chola king Aditya Chola in the ninth century, marking the end of the Pallava dynasty.

The Chola Empire

The Chola Empire, situated in Southern India, extended its territories into South-East Asia. Recognized as the world’s longest-ruling dynasty, the Chola dynasty’s mention dates back to third-century BC inscriptions during the Mauryan empire’s reign under Ashoka and continues until the 13th century AD.
Despite these ancient origins, the rise of the Chola Empire, particularly the Second Chola Empire, began in the mid-ninth century AD. Vijayalaya (AD 850-871) is credited with this resurgence, conquering the Kaveri delta, establishing the city of Thanjavur, and founding the Chola kingdom in AD 850.
Over 400 years, Chola power extended across a vast area of South India, encompassing the entire modern state of Tamil Nadu and significant parts of Southern Karnataka and the Southern Andhra region.

Sources of Chola Empire

The primary sources for studying Chola history are more than 10,000 inscriptions engraved on copper and stone. These inscriptions primarily document endowments and donations to temples by rulers and individuals, including details of land transactions and taxes.
Tamil literature flourished during this period, serving as a literary source. The rise of bhakti saints and the compilation of hymns are reflective of the socio-cultural features of the time.
Notable literary works from this period include Muvarula and Kamba Ramayanam, a great epic.
An Uttarameruru Inscription issued by Parantaka Chola provides details of the election to local self-governance bodies during this significant era in Chola history.

Prominent Rulers of the Chola Dynasty:

Vijayalaya:

Vijayalaya played a pivotal role in founding the Chola Empire. In the eighth century, he seized control of the Thanjavur kingdom, marking the beginning of Chola supremacy, achieved through the defeat of the Pallavas.

Rajaraja I:

Regarded as one of the most celebrated Chola kings, Rajaraja I engaged in naval expeditions, securing victories on the West Coast and Sri Lanka. He conquered the Maldives in the Indian Ocean and named the northern part of Sri Lanka as Mummidigonda Cholamandalam.
Successful in the Battle of Kand Salai against the Cheras, he also undertook expeditions against the Western and Eastern Chalukyas, establishing Shaktiverma on the throne of the Chalukya of Vengi.
Rajaraja I, the first ruler to construct a dam across the Kaveri River, was a devoted follower of Lord Shiva. In AD 1010, he built the renowned Rajarajeswara Temple, also known as Brihadeesvara Temple, in Thanjavur. He assumed titles like Mummidi Chola, Jayankonda, and Sivapadasekara. His son, Rajendra I, succeeded him.

Rajendra I:

Rajendra I orchestrated a remarkable military campaign in AD 1023 with his expedition to Northern India, defeating Mahipala I of the Pala dynasty of Bengal.
In commemoration of this victorious campaign, Rajendra founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram and erected the renowned Rajesvaram Temple in the city.
Another notable achievement was his naval expedition to Sri Vijaya (modern-day Indonesia), earning him the title “Bay of Bengal as Cholamandalam.”
He extended his rule to encompass the entirety of Sri Lanka and established numerous educational institutions throughout his empire, earning him the title Pandita Chola.

Kulottunga 1

Following the demise of Rajendra I, his three immediate successors met untimely deaths. However, his grandson, the last significant Chola ruler, not only preserved the Chola kingdom but also expanded its territories.
This ruler, known for abolishing various taxes and earning the title Sungam Tavirtta, was the sole Chola monarch to dispatch a trade embassy to China. He successfully integrated the Chalukyas of the Vengi kingdom into the Chola empire and coexisted with Ramanujacharya, a prominent Vaishnava saint.

Rajendra Chola II

Rajendra Chola II assumed the Chola emperorship upon the death of his elder brother, Rajadhiraja Chola I, in the 11th century.
He played a pivotal role in the Battle of Koppam, overturning the fortunes of the Chalukyan King Someshwara I. During his reign, a Sri Lankan expedition resulted in the defeat of the Sri Lanka army, compelling their king, Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa, to seek refuge in a mountain fortress. The Chola empire, under his leadership, maintained its territorial integrity.

Kulottunga Chola II

In the late 11th and early 12th centuries, Kulottunga Chola II, a significant Chola emperor, held sway. Bestowed with the title Kulottunga, he fostered diplomatic ties with the Northern Indian city Kannauj, as well as distant realms like Cambodia, Sri Vijaya, and China.
Jayamkondar, the court poet, composed the poem Kalingattu Parani in honor of Kulottunga Chola’s military triumphs.
During his rule, Kulottunga Chola granted several land grants to members of the Shudra community who served as generals and royal officials, reflecting his liberal governance. He secured Chola dominance over Sri Vijaya province Kedah in Malaysia.
Subsequent rulers like Kulottunga I, Rajaraja, and Kulottunga II attempted to sustain Chola’s rule, but it gradually declined and ultimately ended in the 13th century.
The Pandyas and the Hoysalas succeeded the Cholas in the South, while the Yadavas and the Kakatiyas replaced the later Chalukyas.

Rajendra III, the final Chola king, succumbed to defeat against Jatavarman Sundarapandya II. The downfall of the Chola empire paved the way for the emergence of the Pandya and Hoysala kingdoms.

Chola Dynasty Administration:

The king held the highest position in the administration, wielding complete authority. Regular state tours were undertaken by the king to maintain close ties with the administration.
Brahmins were appointed as spiritual guides or Rajagurus by Chola rulers. Rajaraja I and Rajendra I mentioned the names of Rajagurus and Sarva-sivas in their inscriptions.
Chola kings bestowed extensive land estates, known as Brahmadeyams and Caturvedimangalams, upon Brahmins.
The Chola empire was structured into Mandalams, each further divided into valanadus and nadus. Autonomous villages were present in each nadu. Royal princes or officers oversaw the administration of mandalams.
The Valanadu was overseen by periyanattar, nadu by nattar, and the town (nagaram) was administered by a council called nagarattar.
The Cholas maintained a sizable army composed of infantry, cavalry, and elephants, referred to as the three limbs of the army.
Venetian traveler Marco Polo documented the Cholas, noting that all the king’s bodyguards immolated themselves on the funeral pyre of the deceased king.
In the Chola empire, there were two types of local villages. One type comprised people from different castes, and the assembly governing such villages was known as Ur.
The second type consisted of Agrahara villages settled by Brahmins, where most of the land was rent-free.

The Tirumukkudal inscription revealed the existence of a hospital named after Vira Chola. Doctors in the hospital, overseen by a chief physician earning an annual stipend of 80 Kalams of paddy, 8 Kasus, and a land grant, successfully treated various diseases.

Chola Queen Kundavai also founded a hospital in Thanjavur, endowing it with land for perpetual maintenance.
The assembly for Agrahara villages was called Sabha or Mahasabha, representing adult men in Brahmin villages and enjoying substantial autonomy.
Village affairs were handled by Executive Committees, with educated property owners elected through lot-drawing or rotation.
The Uttarameruru Inscription, issued by Parantaka Chola, provided insights into the election process for these committees.

Land Revenue in the Chola Kingdom:

The imperial Chola dynasty witnessed significant agrarian expansion throughout Tamil Nadu, particularly in the Kaveri basin. Numerous canals, such as the Uyyakondan Canal, Rajendran Vaykkal, and Sembian Mahadegvi Vaykkal, date back to this period.

Water Tanks:

A well-organized and highly efficient water management system existed from the village level upward.
Increased royal patronage, along with the expansion of Devadana and Bramadeya lands, elevated the role of temples and village assemblies in water management.
Committees such as Eri-Variyam (tank committee) and Totta-Variyam (garden committees) were active, along with temples utilizing their extensive resources in land, labor, and finances.
Cholas, for tax assessment, conducted extensive land surveys and revenue settlements.
Rajaraja I, Kulottunga I, and Kulottunga III, among other Chola kings, appointed officers for land surveys to classify and assess land for taxation purposes.
The land revenue department was known as Puravuvari-Tinaikkalam, and various units of land measurement, such as Kuli, Ma Veli, Patti, Padagam, etc., existed.
Tax rates were determined based on soil fertility and the status of peasants.

Tolls and Taxes:

During the Chola period, tolls and customs were imposed on goods transported between places, various professional taxes existed, dues were levied on ceremonial occasions like marriages and judicial duties, and fines were imposed.

Religious Life Under the Chola Empire:

Chola rulers were devoted followers of Shaivite beliefs, with Shiva as the primary deity represented in two forms.
The iconic form of Shiva was Lingodhbhava, and the Nataraja idol represented the human form, both worshiped during the Chola period.
During the Chola period, the foundation of a highly developed philosophical system known as Saiva Siddhanta took place.
Kulottunga Chola, a devoted Shaivite, gained notoriety for persecuting the Vaishnavites. The Bhakti saint Ramanujan, in response, left Srirangam and settled in Melkote, Karnataka.

Social Under Chola Empire

In the social landscape of the Chola Empire, the process of Aryanization was further strengthened, and the Sanskritization process commenced during the Chola period.

The caste system was widespread, leading to a division of caste into Idangai and Vadangai. Serious clashes between Shaivites and Vaishnavites were evident, and the practice of sati, although occasional, was considered sacred.

A new social issue emerged during this period known as the Devadasi system, where dancers resided in temples to entertain the Brahmin class.

Literature during the Chola period

In the realm of literature during the Chola period, both Tamil and Sanskrit languages thrived. Tamil literature was hailed as the golden age, featuring notable works such as the Rajarajesvara Natakam, Viranukkaviyam, and Kannivana Puranam in Chola records.

Jayamkondar’s masterpiece, Kalingattuparani, serves as an example of narrative poetry that distinguishes between history and fictitious conventions, describing events during Kulottunga’s war in Kalinga.

Some significant Tamil literary works include Kamban Ramayan by Kamban (Tamil Ramayana), Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar, Kalladam by Kalladanar, and Nalavenba by Pugalendi. Kesava Swami composed the Sanskrit work Nannaranava Samkshevam.

Decline of the Chola Empire

The Chola Empire, once a formidable power in South India, witnessed its decline following the intrusion of the Pandyas. The Pandyas progressively seized Chola territories, ultimately culminating in AD 1279 when the last Chola emperor, Rajendra III, suffered defeat in battle against Kulasekhara Pandiyan. Despite its fall, the Chola empire left behind a rich legacy in the Tamil country.

Hoysalas

Hoysalas, as feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyana, established Dwarasamudra (Halebeedu) as their capital. The dynasty’s founder, Sala, was succeeded by Vinayaditya and Balalla I.

Vishnuvardhana (Bittideva), a prominent figure in the Hoysala dynasty, achieved significant success by completely routing the Cholas from Gangavadi in the Battle of Talakadu, earning him the title “Talkadugonda.”

The Hoysalas were patrons of Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Jainism, with Vishnuvardhana initially following Jainism but later converting to Srivaishnavism under the influence of Sri Ramanujacharya.
This period saw the development of Kannada and Sanskrit literature.
The Hoysalas blended Vesara and Dravida styles, giving rise to the unique Hoysala style prevalent in most of their temples.
In this style, a miniature Shikara is intricately carved on the outer wall of the temple.
Notable examples of Hoysala temples include the Channakeshava temple at Beluru, the Hoysaleshvara temple at Halebeedu, and the Keshava temple at Somnathpura. They also constructed Jain Basadis, such as the Savathi Gandhavarana Basadi at Shravanabelagola.

The Yadavas of Devagiri

The Yadavas of Devagiri ruled the region between the Narmada and Tungabhadra rivers, encompassing present-day Maharashtra, Southern Madhya Pradesh, and the Northern parts of Karnataka.
This dynasty, also known as Sevuna or Daulatabad Gavli Kings, had Devagiri (Daulatabad) as their capital.
The zenith of the Yadava kingdom occurred during the reign of Simhana II and continued to prosper until the early 14th century, when it was absorbed by the Delhi Sultanate. Harpaladeva marked the conclusion of this dynasty as its last king.
Remarkably, the Yadavas were the pioneering major dynasty to adopt Marathi as an official language.

Kakatiyas

The Kakatiya dynasty, a prominent South Indian ruling family, held sway over the majority of the Eastern Deccan region from the 12th to the 14th centuries. Their capital, originally known as Orugallu, is now recognized and as Warangal.
In their early years, the Kakatiya rulers served as vassals to the Rashtrakutas and Western Chalukyas for over two centuries. The transition to full sovereignty occurred under Prataparudra I in AD 1163.
Ganapati Deva (1199-1262) played a pivotal role in the significant expansion of Kakatiya territories during the 1230s, asserting control over the Telugu-speaking lowland delta areas surrounding the Godavari and Krishna rivers. Following his reign, Rudramma Devi (1262-1289) succeeded him.

Literature and Architecture in the Kakatiya Era

The Kakatiya period witnessed the flourishing of Sanskrit and Telugu literature. Jayapa Senani composed literary works such as Geeta Ratnavali, Nritya Ratnavali, and Vadya Ratnavali during this epoch. Classical dance forms like Andhra Natyam and Perinisivatandavam thrived in this cultural milieu.
In their temple constructions, the Kakatiyas adhered to the Trikuta model, which involved building temples dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, and Surya in a triangular arrangement. An exemplary illustration of Kakatiya architecture is the 1000-pillar temple in Warangal, constructed during their rule.
The Ramappa Temple stands out as a prime specimen among Kakatiya temples.

Prelims Facts

Which Chinese traveler has given an account of the relationship of China with India during the reign of Chalukyas? – Hiuen Tsang (UPPSC (Mains) 2014]
Which city was the capital of Kadamba kings? – Banavasi (UPPSC (Mains) 2005]
Which ruler issued the famous “Uttaramerur inscription? – Parantaka (Nagaland PSC (Pre) 2014)
The Pandyan King who consolidated and expanded the Pandya Kingdom upto Kaveri was………. – Sundara Pandya [Tripura PSC (Pre) 2011
The Chola empire was expanded in which region of South India? Coromandel coast and some regions of Deccan [UPPSC (Pre) 1991)
The ruler Udiyanjiral belongs to which dynasty? – Chera Dynasty [UKPSC (Pre) 2022]
What was the royal insignia of the Chera dynasty of South India? -Bow (IAS (Pre) 2007]
Name the Chola king who conquered the Northern part of Sri Lanka. – Rajaraja I (UPPSC (Mains) 2014
Which dynasty frequently assigned to the ladies ranking position in administration? Chalukyas (UPPSC (Mains) 2007
Which King of South India sent an ambassador to the kingdom of Rome in 26 BC? Pandya (MPPSC (Pre) 2013
Which South Indian city was the centre of education and capital of Pallavas? – Kanchi (HPSC (Pre) 2023
What does the term ‘Eripatti’ means? – Land and Revenue set apart for the maintenance of village tank [IAS (Pre) 2016
Which Chola king is known to have conquered the region of Ceylon? – Rajendra I [IAS (Pre) 2001
Which Chola ruler converted the Bay of Bengal into a Chola lake? – Rajendra I [UPPSC (Pre) 2018

UPSC NCERT Practice Questions

1. Consider the following statements. IAS (Pre) 2006

1. The Ikshvaku rulers of South India were opposed to Buddhism.

2. The Pala rulers of Eastern India were supporters of Buddhism.

Which of the above statements) is/are correct?

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

2. Who of the following Chinese travellers has given an account of the relationship of China with India during the reign of Chalukyas? UPPSC (Pre) 2014

(a) Fa-Hien

(b) Hiuen 1sang

(d) Matwalin

3. The Sanskrit poet and dramatist Kalidasa finds a mention in UPPSC (Pre) 2012

(a) Aihole Inscription of Pulakesin II

(b) Gwalior Inscription of Mihir Bhoja

(d) Mathura Pillar Inscription of Chandragupta II

4. Arrange the names of the following Pallava rulers according to their reign in correct chronological order. UPPSC (Pre) 2019

1. Parameswaravarman I

2. Narasimhavarman I

3. Nandivarman II

4. Mahendravarman I

Select the correct answer from the codes given below.

(a) 4213

(b) 4312

(с) 1324

(d) 32 1 4

5. Who among the following rulers issued the famous Uttaramerur Inscription? Nagaland PSC (Pre) 2014

(a) Vijayaraya

(b) Rajaraja

(d) Parantaka

6. Assertion (A) We have much more information about Cholas than their predecessors.

Reason (R) The Chola rulers adopted the practice of having inscriptions written on the walls of temples giving a historical narrative of their victories. UPPSC (Pre) 2020

Codes

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.

(d) A is false, but R is true.

7. Consider the following statements. UPPSC (Pre) 2003

1. The Cholas defeated the Pandya and Chera rulers and established their domination over peninsular India in early medieval times.

2. The Cholas sent an expedition against the Saliendra empire of Southeast Asia and conquered some of the areas.

Which of these statements) is/are correct?

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

8. Which Hoysala king worshipped Parshvanatha, the 23rd Jain Tirthankara and his spiritual adviser was Maghanandi Siddhanta (Digambara monk of Balatkara Gana)?

(a) Narasimha III

(b) Vira Ballala III

(d) All of these

9. Warangal was the capital of which dynasty?

(a) Kakatiya

(b) Devagiri

C)Chalukya

(d) Hoysala

Know Right Answer

1 (b)

2 (b)

3 (a)

4 (a)

5 (D)

6 (a)

7 (c)

8 (a)

9 (a)

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. Q: Which were the major kingdoms that flourished in South India during ancient times?

A: The major kingdoms in ancient South India included the Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas, and Pallavas. These dynasties played a crucial role in shaping the political, cultural, and economic landscape of the region.

2. Q: What were the notable achievements of the Chola dynasty in South India?

A: The Chola dynasty, known for its maritime activities, established a powerful naval force and trade network. They also made significant contributions to art and architecture, with the Brihadeshwara Temple in Thanjavur being a remarkable example of their architectural prowess.

3. Q: How did trade and commerce contribute to the prosperity of the southern kingdoms?

A: The southern kingdoms were actively involved in trade with other regions, including Southeast Asia and the Roman Empire. Ports such as Mamallapuram were crucial trade centers. This maritime trade contributed to economic prosperity, cultural exchange, and the development of a cosmopolitan society.

4. Q: What were the major cultural developments during the Pallava rule in South India?

A: The Pallavas were patrons of art and literature. They contributed to the development of Dravidian architecture, as seen in structures like the Kailasanatha Temple in Kanchipuram. The period also witnessed the growth of Sanskrit and Tamil literature.

5. Q: How did the decline of the southern kingdoms pave the way for later medieval empires in South India?

A: The decline of the Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas, and Pallavas created a power vacuum in South India. This void was filled by later medieval empires such as the Vijayanagara Empire and the Bahmani Sultanate. These empires emerged as significant political entities in the Deccan and South India, shaping the course of regional history.

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UPSC NCERT Notes – Ancient History – Kingdoms of South India