The Gupta age witnessed the political unification of India after a long period of more than 500 years after the decline of the Mauryans. The Gupta Age is called the golden age of India because the civilization during this age reached the top.
- In the third century AD, the Kushanas in North India and the Satavahanas in the Deccan experienced a decline, leading to a period of political disintegration in India. However, this period also saw the rise of various smaller powers and new ruling families.
- Among these, the Guptas played a significant role in establishing an empire. Following the Mauryas, the Guptas achieved the political unification of North India and extended their influence over much of the Indian subcontinent.
Origin of Gupta Empire:
- The origins of the Gupta kings are unclear, and several theories have been proposed. Puranas mention the early Gupta kings’ territory in the Ganges basin, specifically in Prayaga, Saketa, and Magadha areas.
- The Guptas are thought to have been feudatories of the Kushanas, but their dynasty’s varna or social class is not mentioned.
| Some historians, like AS Altekar, suggest that they might have been of Vaishya origin, traditionally associated with trade. It is theorized that they may have become rulers after resisting oppressive taxation by previous rulers. |
- However, the suffix Gupta is found in the names of several non-Vaishyas before and during the Gupta period, adding complexity to their social origins.
Historical Sources
- Various sources provide insights into the Gupta Empire today, such as Literary Sources, Inscriptions, Official Records, and Numismatic Evidence. Here’s a breakdown:
Literary Sources
- Puranas: Vayu, Vishnu, Matsya, Skanda, and Markandeya Puranas offer details on the royal genealogy of the Gupta kings.
- Devi Chandraguptam and Mudrarakshasa: Works by Vishakhadatta that provide information about the rise of the Guptas.
- Kalidasa’s Works: Abhijanasakuntalam, Meghadutam, and Kumarasambhava by Kalidasa offer reliable information about governance, society, and religion during the Gupta age.
- Fa-Hien’s Account: The Chinese traveler Fa-Hien, during Chandragupta II’s reign, provides socio-economic and religious conditions of the period.
Fa-Hien’s Account
- Fa-Hien, a Chinese Buddhist monk, visited India during Chandragupta II Vikramaditya’s reign.
- He documented his experiences in the book Fu-Kuo-Ki.
- Fa-Hien’s detailed description covers the administration of the Gupta Empire. He noted the Chandalas living separately, striking a piece of wood to warn others when entering cities.
Inscriptions and Official Records
- Royal Land Grant Inscriptions: Reflect social and economic processes, offering insights into administrative structures and agrarian relations.
- Prashastis: Some inscriptions describe events or chronicles. For example, the Prayaga Prashasti of Samudragupta by Harisena details military campaigns.
- Junagarh Rock Inscription: Skandagupta’s inscription mentions repairs to the Sudarsana lake and the construction of the Vishnu Lakshmi temple.
- Eran Inscription: Bhanugupta’s inscription provides early evidence of Sati.
Numismatic Evidence
- The Gupta kings issued numerous gold and silver coins, resembling Greek and Kushana coins in design and artistic features.
- Kumaradevi-type coins, issued by Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta, Skandagupta, and Budhagupta, offer valuable insights into Gupta’s achievements.
Rulers of the Gupta Dynasty
The rulers of the Gupta dynasty are as Follows
Sri Gupta
- The Gupta dynasty, founded by Srigupta in the 3rd century AD, used the title Maharaja.
- I-Tsing, a Chinese pilgrim in AD 673-95, mentioned Sri Gupta allowing the construction of a Buddhist Stupa at Mrigasikhavana in Bengal for Chinese monks.
Ghatotkacha Gupta (AD 280-319)
- Ghatotkacha Gupta (AD 280-319) succeeded Sri Gupta, also holding the title of Maharaja.
Chandragupta I (AD 319-335)
- Chandragupta I, the son of Ghatotkacha, became the first powerful ruler of the Gupta dynasty. He adopted the title Maharajadhiraja, marking the beginning of the Gupta empire on 26th February AD 320, an era that lasted for centuries in parts of India.
| Chandragupta, I married Kumaradevi, a Lichchhavi princess, which increased his power and prestige. The marriage was celebrated on coins known as Chandragupta-Kumaradevi type coins, depicting the king and queen on one side and a goddess seated on a lion with the legend Lichchavayah on the other. |
- He expanded his kingdom through conquests, reaching from the Ganges river to Prayaga by AD 321. His empire included Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, and parts of modern Bihar, with Pataliputra as its capital.
- The Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription details his conquests. Historian VA Smith suggested that Kumaradevi brought valuable influence through her dowry, securing control of the Lichchhavi state and a prominent position in Magadha.
Samudragupta (AD 335-380)
- Samudragupta, the greatest Gupta king, witnessed the expansion and consolidation of the Gupta empire, known for his remarkable military achievements.
- His conquests can be categorized into five groups: defeating princes of the Ganga-Yamuna doab, rulers of the Eastern Himalayan states, forest kingdoms in the Vindhya region, 12 rulers of the Eastern Deccan and South India, and the Sakas and Kushans.
- Samudragupta conquered various places and countries, which can be grouped into five categories:
- Group One: This includes princes of the Ganga-Yamuna doab, who were defeated, and their kingdoms became part of the Gupta Empire.
- Group Two: It involves the rulers of the Eastern Himalayan states and some frontier states, like the princes of Nepal, Assam, Bengal, and the republics of Punjab.
- Group Three: Encompasses forest kingdoms located in the Vindhya region, known as Atavika Rajyas.
- Group Four: Consists of 12 rulers of the Eastern Deccan and South India who were conquered and liberated. Samudragupta’s rule extended as far as Kanchi in Tamil Nadu.
- Group Five: Involves the Sakas and Kushans, with some of them ruling in Afghanistan.
| According to Chinese sources, Meghavarna, the ruler of Sri Lanka (AD 375-415), sought Samudragupta’s permission to build a Buddhist monastery at Gaya, and this permission was granted, leading to the construction of a grand temple. |
- VA Smith referred to Samudragupta as the Indian Napoleon due to his extensive military conquests, and Samudragupta assumed the title of Vikramanka.
- During his Southern campaign, Virasen served as his Commander-in-Chief, and Vasubandhu, a renowned Buddhist scholar, was his minister.
- The Allahabad Prashasti suggests that Samudragupta was not just a conqueror but also a poet, musician, and patron of learning. He was described as Kaviraja (king among poets), and Harisena referred to him as Lichchhavi-Dauhitra.
- Samudragupta wrote Krishnacharita in Sanskrit, and his court was adorned by the great Sanskrit scholar Harisena. This highlights his role as a significant patron of Sanskrit literature and learning. Buddhist scholars Asanga and Vasubandhu were also part of his court.
Chandragupta II AD 380 to 412
- Chandragupta II, who ruled from AD 380 to 412, succeeded Samudragupta around AD 375.
- Some historians suggest that Ramagupta might have ruled between Samudragupta and Chandragupta II.
- According to the play Devichandraguptam by Visakhadatta, Ramagupta succeeded Samudragupta and ruled for five years from AD 370-375.
- The story goes that Ramagupta was defeated in battle by the Shakas, and in return, he agreed to surrender his wife, Dhruvadevi.
- Chandragupta, the younger brother, angered by this, disguised himself as the queen, entered the Shaka king’s quarters, and killed him.
- In the end, Chandragupta killed his elder brother, married his widow, Dhruvadevi, and took over the throne. The discovery of coins of Ramagupta and inscriptions mentioning Dhruvadevi as Chandragupta’s wife adds some authenticity to this story.
- Political marriages were significant in Gupta’s foreign policy. Chandragupta II continued this policy by marrying Kubernaga, a princess from the Naga chieftains, and forming an alliance with the Vakatakas of the Deccan by marrying his daughter Prabhavati to Rudrasena II.
- Chandragupta II’s most important military achievement was his war against the Shaka Kshatraps of Western India.
- He defeated, dethroned, and killed Rudrasimha-III, the last ruler of the Shaka Kshatrapa.
- The territories in Western Malwa and Kathiawar were annexed into the Gupta Empire.
- Chandragupta II issued silver coins, becoming the first Gupta ruler to do so, and adopted the titles Vikramaditya and Sakari in memory of his victory.
- The Iron Pillar at Mehrauli, near Qutub Minar in Delhi, bears an inscription of a king known as ‘Chandra.’ This Chandra king is believed to be Chandragupta II. The inscription indicates that Chandragupta II fought against a confederacy of enemies in Bengal (Vanga) and defeated Bactria (Valhikas).
- In his reign, the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien (AD 399-414) visited India and mentioned a government-run hospital in Pataliputra.
- During the fifth century AD, Chandragupta II, also known as Vikramaditya, ousted the Sakas from the Western region of India. It is widely believed that he initiated the Vikram Era.
- However, it’s worth noting that the Vikrama Era had already started in 58 BC by a king named Vikramaditya of Ujjaini, long before Chandragupta II became king.
- Chandragupta II had a group of nine scholars, known as Navratnas, according to the literary work Jyotirvidabharana by Kalidasa. These scholars, including Kalidasa himself, were:
Navratnas of Chandragupta II
- According to the Jyotirvidabharana, a literary work of Kalidasa. King Chandragupta II had the following nine scholars (including Kalidasa himself) which was collectively called Navratnas which are as follows:
- Amarsimha – Sanskrit lexicographer and author of Amarkosha.
- Dhanvantri – Great Physician and author of Dravyavali and Nighantu.
- Harisena – Great Eulogist, who composed the Prayag Prashasti or Allahabad Pillar Inscription.
- Kalidasa – Great Playwright, often termed as the Indian Shakespeare.
- Kshapanaka – Great Astrologer and Grammarian, known for his treatise Kshapanaka Vyakarana.
- Sanku – Great Builder and Architect of Ujjain.
- Varahamihira – Astrologer, Astronomer, and Mathematician, who wrote Panchasiddhantika, Brihat Samhita, and Brihat Jataka.
- Vararuchi – Grammarian and Sanskrit Scholar, identified as Katyayana, who wrote Prakrit Prakasha, the first Grammar of the Prakrit language.
- Vetalbhatta – A great poet and composer of Vetalapanchavimastikan.
Kumaragupta I (AD 415-455)
- Kumaragupta I (AD 415-455) performed the Ashwamedha sacrifice. However, in the later years of his reign, the peace and prosperity of the empire were disrupted by internal conflicts and external invasions, particularly from the new invaders known as the Hunas. Kumaragupta laid the foundation of Nalanda University, which gained international significance.
- His son, Skandagupta, successfully defeated the Hunas, as mentioned in the Bhitari and Junagarh inscriptions.
- Skandagupta adopted the titles of Shakraditya and Mahendraditya and worshipped Kartikeya, the son of Lord Shiva.
- Kumaragupta I’s reign is documented in inscriptions like Karandanda, Mandsaur, Bilsad (the oldest record of his reign), and the Damodar Copper Plate.
Skandagupta (AD 455-467)
- Skandagupta (AD 455-467) repulsed the ferocious Hunas attacks twice, earning him the title Vikramaditya, as mentioned in the Bhitari Pillar Inscription. Although the empire continued, central control weakened, and local Governors became feudatory kings with hereditary rights.
- Skandagupta, a Vaishnava, followed the tolerant policy of his predecessors and repaired the Junagarh lake in Gujarat.
Successors of Skandagupta
- Considered one of the greatest rulers of the Gupta dynasty, Skandagupta is remembered for his remarkable defense of the Gupta empire’s territorial integrity against both foreign invasion and internal upheavals.
- He defeated the Huna Armies, as indicated by the Bhittari Stone inscription.
- His Girnar inscription mentions the breach at Lake Sudarshana in AD 455, built during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign, and its repair the next year within a short period of 2 months. With his death in AD 467, the glory of the Gupta empire faded rapidly.
Titles Adopted by Gupta Kings
| Kings | Titles |
| Srigupta | Maharaja |
| Ghatotkacha | Maharaja |
| Chandragupta I | Maharaja Dhiraj |
| Samudragupta | Kaviraja (Prayag Prashasti), Aswamedha Prakaraman (on coins), Vikram (on coins), Param Bhagvat (Nalanda copper plate); Sarva-raj-och cheat (on coins); Dharma Prachar Bandhu (Allahabad pillar inscriptions) |
| Chandragupta II | Vikramaditya, Sakari Devagupta, Deva Shri, Devaraja, Narendra Chandra Singh Vikram, Param Bhagvata, etc. |
| Kumaragupta | Mahendraditya, Shakraditya |
| Skandagupta | Vikramaditya, Karamaditya, Param Bhagvat (on coins); Shakropama (Kahaum Pillar inscription); Devaraja (Arya Manjushri Mula Kalpa) |
| Huna’s Rule in India Around AD 500, Western India came under the control of the Huna kings for about 30 years. Among them, Toramana and his son Mihirakula were powerful monarchs who had extended their rule up to Gwalior and Eran in Madhya Pradesh. Mihirakula, known as a fierce persecutor of Buddhism, left a dark legacy. In Kashmir, one of the centers of his power, memories of his cruel tyranny persisted even in the 12th century, as documented by historian Kalhana. |
Gupta Administration
- During the Gupta Period, the administration was highly centralized, with all powers concentrated in the hands of the king.
Central Administration Features
- While the king held extensive powers, his rule was not tyrannical. A Council of Ministers and various civil officials assisted the king in governing.
- The most crucial officers in the Gupta empire were the Kumaramatyas.
- The royal seal bore the imprint of Garuda Started in the Deccan by the Satavahanas, the practice of granting land and fiscal administration became regular affairs in the Gupta times.
- A new office of Sandhivigrahaka first appears under the Gupta ruler Samudragupta. He was the minister of peace and war Harisena held this title.
Important Officials at the Central Level
| Officers | Department |
| Mahabaladhikrita | Commander-in-Chief |
| Mahadandanayaka | Chief Justice |
| Mahapratihara | An official to maintain the royal palace |
| Mahasandhivigrahaka/ Sandhivigrahaka | An official for post-war conciliation |
| Dandapashika | Head of the police department |
| Bhandagaradhikreta | Head of the Royal Treasury |
| Mahapaksha-Patalika | Head of the account department |
| Vinaysthitisansathapaka | Head of the education department |
| Sarvadhyaksha | Mahashwapati |
| Mahamaipilupati | Vinaypura |
| Yukta Purusha | Khadyatpakika |
| Ranabhandagarika | Mahanarpati |
| Mahakartakrtika | Inspector for all the central departments |
| Controller of cavalry | Controller and executor of Elephant force |
| Official to present different guests at the king’s court | Office to keep account of war booty |
| Inspector of the royal kitchen | Officer-in-charge of Army stores |
| Head of foot soldiers (Infantry) | Department of works and building |
Provincial and Local Administration
- The empire was divided into regions called Bhuktis, each led by an official known as Uparika.
- Bhuktis were further divided into districts called Vishayas, headed by Vishyapati.
- The Vishayas were then divided into Vithis, and Vithis were further subdivided into Villages.
City Administration
- City administration was overseen by the Paura council. This council included the President of the city corporation, the chief representative of the merchant guild, a representative of the artisans, and the Chief Accountant.
- Unlike the Mauryas, the city committee under the Guptas was not appointed by the government but comprised local representatives.
Judiciary
- The Gupta period saw the first clear definition and demarcation of civil and criminal laws. The king served as the ultimate authority in dispensing justice and resolving disputes. Punishments were relatively light and mild.
- The king’s judicial power was supported by the Mahadandanayaka (Chief Justice).
Army
- The king’s standing army received occasional reinforcements from the feudatories.
- Senabhakta, a form of tax, required the people to provide food for the army as it passed through the countryside.
- Forced labor, or Vishti, was practiced in the royal army. Military tactics saw the prominence of horse archery, with chariots taking a backseat as cavalry gained importance.
Gupta Economy
- Land revenue stood as the primary source of income, generally fixed at one-sixth of the produce.
- Long-distance trade experienced a decline compared to earlier periods.
- South-East Asia emerged as a significant center for Indian trade.
- Ports on the West coast facilitating trade with the Mediterranean and West Asia included Bharoach, Chaul, Kalyan, and Cambay. Ports on the East Coast for trade with Southeast Asia were Tamralipti, Ghantashala, and Kandura.
- Vishti (Forced Labor) was considered a source of income for the state.
- Kamandaka’s Nitisara emphasized the significance of the royal treasury.
- Akshapataladhikrita records. was the keeper of royal Records
Guilds Class
- The Guilds class can be defined as the merchant and other trader class that is organized and grouped into an institution of the same name.
- They were self-sufficient and used to regulate their laws and the members of the guilds were expected to abide by these laws to function in any particular area or region.
- The Mandsaur inscription of Kumaragupta gives details about the guilds of silk weavers and corporate activities of the period
Taxes Levied During the Guptas
| Tax Names | Tax Specifics |
| Klipta/Upkilpta | Sales tax and Purchase tax |
| Halivakara/Halidanda | Tax on ploughing |
| Ball | An additional oppressive tax on people |
| Pratyaya | Toll tax |
| Bhog | King’s share of produce |
| Bhog Bhagkara | Combination of Bhog and Bhaga |
| Bhatta | Police tax |
| Chat | Security tax |
| Chakrasana | Grazing tax |
| Hiranya | Tax on special produce taken in cash |
| Udakabhaga | May be water tax |
| Uparikara | Tax collected from all subjects |
| Teradata | Tax on navigation |
| Rajju | Tax for measurement of land |
| Sarvarishtia | Forced tax |
| Bedakbhoga | Irrigation tax |
| Jparnika | Tax is taken from the border area |
| Bhoga | General tribute |
Mining and Metallurgy
- During the Gupta period, mining and metallurgy thrived as one of the most prosperous industries. Extensive mining took place in Bihar for rich iron-ore deposits and in Rajasthan for copper.
- Apart from iron, various metals like gold, copper, tin, lead, brass, bronze, bell metal, mica, manganese, antimony, red chalk, and red arsenic were used. These metals were employed in manufacturing domestic tools, utensils, and weapons.
- A notable example showcasing the advanced state of metallurgy is the Mehrauli Iron Pillar in the Qutb Minar Complex in Delhi, associated with King Chandra, identified as Chandragupta II.
Trade and Commerce
- The trade and commerce of the Gupta period played a crucial role in the empire’s prosperity. The Gupta Empire was renowned for exporting various goods to the Roman Empire.
- Key export items included silk, leather goods, fur, iron products, ivory, pearls, spices, and indigo.
| Major port towns facilitating trade were Kalyana (Western India), Tamralipti (Eastern India), and Sind (North-Western India), serving as significant wholesale trade centers with the Romans. Ujjaini also emerged as a major commercial hub. |
- In overseas trade, a tax of 1/5th of the commodity’s value was levied. Sarthavaha, a caravan trader, transported goods to different places for profitable sales.
- Usury, the lending of money at high-interest rates, was practiced during the Gupta period.
- Various ports on the Western coast of India, such as Calliena (Kalyan), Chaul port in Mumbai, and markets like Male (Malabar), Mangarouth (Mangalore), Salopatana, Nalopatana, and Pandopatana on the Malabar coast, facilitating trade.
Major Industries
- The textile industry was a significant part of this period. Major centers for textile production during the Gupta period included Varanasi, Mathura, Dashapura, and Kamarupa.
- Some of the significant items produced during the Gupta period were silk, muslin, calico, linen, wool, and cotton.
Agriculture
- As per the Paharpur copper plate inscription of Buddhagupta, the state exclusively owned the land. The Poona plates of Prabhavatigupta mention a land survey conducted during this period.
- Pustapala was the officer in charge of maintaining records for all land transactions.
- During the Gupta period, land grants (Agarhara and Devagrahara grants) also involved the transfer of royal rights over salt and mines, which were previously a state monopoly during the Mauryas.
Irrigation
- According to the Narada Smriti, there were two types of irrigation during this time:
- Dykes (Bardhya), which protected fields from floods
- The khara, which served the purpose of irrigation.
- To prevent inundation, jalanirgamah (drains) were constructed, as mentioned by Amarasimha.
- Canals were built not only from rivers but also from tanks and lakes. The most renowned lake was the Sudarshana Lake at the foot of Girnar Hills in Gujarat.
Types of Land
| Land Names | Land users |
| Kshetra Bhoomi | Cultivable land |
| Khila | Wasteland |
| Vastu Bhoomi | Habitable land |
| Charan Bhoomi | Graze land |
| Aprahata Bhoomi | Forest land |
Coinage System
- The Guptas released the most significant quantity of gold coins, referred to as Dinaras in their inscriptions, although they were not widely used as currency.
- Following the conquest of Gujarat, the Guptas introduced a considerable number of silver coins, primarily for local transactions.
- According to Fa-Hein, cowries became a prevalent medium of exchange. Unlike the Kushanas, the Gupta copper coins were relatively scarce.
Coins Issued by Gupta Kings
| Kings | Types of Coins |
| Chandragupta I | Kumaradevi type |
| Samudragupta | Dhanurdhari-Archer, Garud, Axe. Ashvamedha, Vyaghra-anam (tiger killing type), Veenavadan (playing flute) |
| Chandragupta II | Ashvarohi, Chhatrahari, Chakra-Vikram type, etc. |
| Kumaragupta | Archer, Standard, Lion slayer, Swordsman, Horseman |
| Skandagupta | Gajarohi, Kadgadhari, Sinh-Rihanna, Khang-nihanta (i.e. Rhinoceros slayer), Kartikeya, and Apratighmudra type |
Gupta Society
- The Brahmanas became wealthier due to land grants and claimed various privileges, as listed in the Narada Smriti (AD fifth century). The number of castes and sub-castes increased significantly due to the absorption of foreigners and tribes.
- The Shudras’ status improved slightly; they were allowed to listen to the epics and Puranas, worship a new God called Krishna, and perform certain domestic rites, possibly involving fees to the priests.
- Peasants were relegated to the position of serfs due to land grants to Brahmanas.
- Shudras were now recognized as agriculturists rather than just servants and slaves.
- There were four types of retired forest life in this period:
- Audambara – Men who took their wives along but observed strict celibacy.
- Vaisanchi – Men who did not accompany their wives.
- Balakhilya – Life free from worldly attachments.
- Hermits – Those who led a very strict life.
- The Chandalas, Charmakars, and similar groups were considered impure and outcastes.
- During this time, the number of untouchables increased significantly. They lived outside the village and were engaged in scavenging or butchery.
Position of Women
- In the Gupta period, women were allowed to listen to the epics and the Puranas and worship Krishna. However, women of higher orders did not have independent sources of livelihood in pre-Gupta and Gupta times.
- They lacked property rights. However, the gifts of jewelry, ornaments, garments, and other presents made to the bride during her marriage were considered her property.
- The Gupta and post-Gupta law books substantially expanded the scope of these gifts, known as Stridhana.
- Bhanugupta’s Eran inscription provides the first evidence of sati and child marriage. Katyayana, a law-giver of the sixth century, held that a woman could sell and mortgage her immovable property along with her Stridhana.
- This implies that women received shares in landed property, but generally, a daughter was not allowed to inherit landed property in the patriarchal communities of India.
Religious Life
- Buddhism no longer received royal patronage. The importance of Vaishnavism increased, and Vishnu became a famous deity of Hindus.
- Idol worship in temples became a common feature of Hinduism from the Gupta period onwards.
- Religious toleration prevailed. The Shakti cult gave rise to consorts to Gods and Goddesses like Lakshmi, Parvati, and Durga, etc. Tantricism also became popular in the fifth century.
- The schools of Hindu philosophy were enunciated in this period. By the AD fourth century, Bhagavad Gita was finally compiled, teaching devotion to Lord Krishna and stressing the performance of functions assigned to each Varna. Hence, the concept of Bhakti developed, and worship superseded sacrifice.
- Different religious sects co-existed peacefully. Vaishnavite or Shaivite kings constructed temples for their respective deities. Religious texts like Puranas, Mahabharata, and Ramayana were expanded in this period. Bhagvatism centered on Vishnu emerged.
- The development of the Mahayana School of Buddhism was itself a testimony to the reviving power of Brahminical Hinduism. This newer Buddhism was very much common to Hinduism.
Art and Culture During the Gupta Period
- In art, architecture, sculpture, painting, and terracotta figurines, the Gupta period witnessed unprecedented activities and development all over India.
- That is why the period is also referred to as the Golden Age of Ancient India.
Temple Architecture
- The Gupta period is significantly marked by the development of new temple styles. The Guptas were Brahmanical by religion with a special devotion to Vishnu.
- However, they showed exemplary tolerance for both Buddhism and Jainism as well.
- Therefore, the early Gupta period shows an emphasis on Hindu art; the epitome of Buddhist art came during the later period.
- The best-preserved examples of Gupta-style architecture are the Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed (including Jain) caves at Ajanta, Elephanta, and Ellora.
| In the Gupta period, strong materials such as dressed stone and brick were used for building. The Gupta period marks the beginning of Indian temple architecture. |
- Out of the initial experimentation, two major styles evolved: the Nagara Style in Northern India and the Dravida Style in Southern India.
Five Types of Architecture
- Square Building with Flat Roof and Pillared Mandapa: The Kankali Devi temple at Tigawa and the Vishnu and Varaha temples at Eran are some of the Gupta temples where the nucleus of a temple, the Sanctum or Garbagriha with a single entrance and a porch (mandapa), appears for the first time.
- Addition of Pradakshina: An elaboration or inclusion for the first time was the addition of an ambulatory (pradakshina) around the sanctum and sometimes a second story, such as the Shiva temple at Bhumara (Madhya Pradesh) and the Ladh-Khan at Aihole (Karnataka).
- Square Temple with Low Shikhara: For the first time, a square temple with a low and squat tower (shikhara) above emerged during the Gupta period. Notable examples are the Dasavatara temple (built in stone at Deogarh, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh) and the brick temple at Bhitargaon (Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh). It has a platform at the base, and the tower adds to the elevation of the composition.
| Rectangular Temple with Vaulted Roof: Another form of temple design developed, which was a rectangular temple with an apsidal back (internally carved) and barrel-vaulted roof above. The Kapoteswara temple at Cezarla (Andhra Pradesh) is one example of this type. |
- Circular Temple with Four Cardinal Faces: The last type of temple formation developed was called a Circular temple with shallow rectangular projections at the four cardinal faces. The only monument with this style is the Maniyar Matha at Rajgir, Bihar.
Discovery of Sankh Lipi
- The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) discovered remains of an ancient temple dating back to the Gupta period (AD fifth century) in Bilsarh village in Uttar Pradesh’s Etah district in 2021.
- Two pillars were excavated, on which there is an inscription about Kumaragupta I, the powerful ruler of the Gupta dynasty, in Sankh Lipi (conch script or shell script) typical of the AD fifth century.
- It was discovered in 1836 on a brass trident in Uttarakhand Barahat by James Prinsep.
- Both Sankh Lipi and Brahmi are stylized scripts used primarily for names and signatures. The Guptas were the first to build structural temples, distinctly different from the ancient rock-cut temples.
Sculpture Art Form
- The success of the Gupta sculpture art form was the result of culminating the sensuousness of the Kushana figures and the early Christian eras with highly indigenous characters.
- A large amount of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain sculptures have been found in several places in India. From Besnagar, a relief of the Goddess Ganges, from Gwalior reliefs of flying Apsaras, from Sondani the slab representing a Gandharva couple soaring in the air, from Khoh the Eka-Mukha Linga, etc., have been found.
- An approximately human-size representation of the Hari-Hara (half Shiva-half Vishnu) from Madhya Pradesh and Krishna, best known later as the eighth incarnation of Vishnu, also from the early AD fifth century, are some of the best sculpture art forms.
- The Buddha statue discovered at Sarnath was a unique piece of Gupta art. In this statue, the Buddhist ideal of serenity is evident from the expression on the Buddha’s face and the smile that suggests the ultimate harmony achieved by the enlightened one. These are some of the specialties of the Gupta period.
| The four Buddha images placed at the entrances of the Great Stupa at Sanchi showcase the delicacy, grace, and brilliance of the sculptural style that characterizes the art of the mature Gupta period. |
- The Bhitari monolithic pillar, belonging to Skandagupta, is also a remarkable creation. The Mathura School of Art and Sculpture flourished during the Gupta period, showcasing various forms and designs.
Painting
- During the Gupta period, paintings predominantly depicted secular characters and themes. The cave paintings of Ajanta, Badami, and Bagh are representative of Gupta paintings.
- Narrative Buddhist paintings were created in the caves of Ajanta during both the early and later phases.
| The oldest surviving Buddhist paintings in India, found in Caves 9 and 10, are based on Jataka Tales, which are stories about the previous existence of the Bodhisattva. |
- The best-preserved copies of later paintings from the AD fifth century are found in caves 1, 2, 16, and 17.
- These paintings depict stories from the Avadana and Jataka, detailing glorious deeds by Bodhisattvas who, as kings, merchants, and princes, perform acts of great moral merit. The caves also depict events from Sakyamuni Buddha’s life.
Famous Temples of the Gupta Age
| Temples | Locations |
| Vishnu Temple | Tigawa (Jabalpur) |
| Shiva Temple | Bhumara (Nagaud) |
| Parvati Temple | Nachna Kuthara |
| Dasavtar Temple | Deogarh (Jhansi) |
| Shiva Temple | Koh (Nagaud) |
| Bhitargaon Temple | Bhitargaon |
| Lakshman Temple | Kanpur (Brick made) |
| Lakshman Temple | Sirpur (Raipur) |
| Mukund Darra Temple | Kota |
| Jarasangh’s Sitting | Rajagriha (Bihar) |
Literature during the Gupta Period
- Sanskrit was the Guptas’ court language. The Puranas existed in the form of bardic literature long before the Guptas and they were finally compiled and given their current form during the Gupta period. During this time, various Smritis, or verse (written law books) were also compiled.
- Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and Patanjali was also developed.
Important Literature
| Subjects | Writers | Works |
| Drama | Kalidasa | Vikramovarshiya, Malavikagnimitram, Raghuvamsa, Ritusamharam, Meghadutam, Abhigyan Shakuntalam |
| Drama | Bhasa | Swapnavasavadatta, Charudatta, Pratignayaugandharayana |
| Drama | Vishakhadatta | Mudrarakshasa, Devichandraguptam |
| Drama | Shudraka | Mrichchakatika |
| Grammar | Dandin | Kavyadarshana, Chandravyakarana |
| Grammar | Amarsimha | Amarakosha |
| Narrative Story | Vishnu Sharma | Panchatantra, Hitopadesha |
| Narrative Story | Dandin | Dasakumarcharita |
| Philosophy | Ishwar Krishna | Sankhyakarika (Sankhya Philosophy), Prashastipada, Dharmasangraha (Vai Sheshika Philosophy) |
| Philosophy | Acharya Vyasa | Vyasa Bhasya (Yoga Philosophy) |
| Philosophy | Vatsyayana | Nyaya Bhasya (Nyaya Philosophy) |
| Miscellaneous | Vatsyayana | Kamasutra |
| Miscellaneous | Bhamah | Kavyalankara |
| Miscellaneous | Bharavi | Kiratarjuniya |
Science and Technology During the Gupta Period
- The Gupta era saw significant progress in Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Astronomy, Medicine, and more.
Physics
- The Vaiseshika school, predating the Greeks, developed the atomic theory, understanding atoms and molecules.
- Brahmagupta (late sixth and early seventh centuries) anticipated Newton by stating that “All things fall to Earth by the law of nature,” emphasizing Earth’s natural attraction.
Chemistry
- Metallurgy experienced great development, leading to large-scale production of metals like gold, silver, copper, iron, brass, and alloys.
- The post-Mauryan period saw the export of steel products to the West.
- Notable examples include the Gupta period’s copper statue of Buddha from Sultanganj and the Iron Pillar of Mehrauli in Delhi.
Mathematics
- Indians made contributions to the notation system, decimal system, and zero usage.
- The Indian Notation System, adopted by Arabs, became known as Arabic numerals in English. The use of the decimal system dates back to the fifth century AD.
- The concept of zero was discovered by Indians in the second century BC, with Brahmagupta giving it mathematical significance.
| Geometry knowledge is evident in the Sulvasutras from the fifth century BC, and Aryabhatta formulated rules for finding the area of a triangle, contributing to the origin of Trigonometry. |
Astronomy
- Jyotisha Vedanga (500 BC) is the earliest source exclusively dealing with astronomy, providing rules for calculating the position of the Moon among the 27 Nakshatras.
- Aryabhatta explained the true causes of solar and lunar eclipses, stating that the Sun is stationary, and the Earth rotates around it. He calculated the value of n as 3.1416 and asserted the Earth’s spherical shape.
- Varahamihira in Brihat Samhita (AD sixth century) mentioned the Moon rotating around the Earth and the Earth rotating around the Sun.
Medicine
- Atharvaveda hymns are associated with Ayurveda. Charaksamhita (AD 100) outlines diseases, cures, treatments, and prevention through diet.
- Navanitakam is a medical work containing recipes, formulations, and prescriptions.
- Hastyayurveda by Palakapya highlights India’s advances in Medical Science.
- Susrutasamhita of Susruta discusses various diseases, operations with anesthesia, surgical instruments, cataract surgery, and rhinoplasty.
Decline of the Gupta Empire
- The Gupta Empire declined for various reasons, including
Frequent invasions by the Huns.
- The Huns, a warlike tribe from Central Asia, dealt significant blows to the Gupta Empire during the later reigns.
- Although Skandagupta initially resisted the Huns’ invasions, his successors were weak and unable to withstand the Hun onslaught.
- By AD 485, the Huns had conquered large parts of Western India, including Punjab, Rajasthan, Kashmir, Eastern Malwa, and Central India.
- Toramana’s son, Mihirkula, earned a reputation as a tyrant ruler, described in the Rajatarangini by Kalhana and noted by Hieun-Tsang as a persecutor of Buddhists.
The emergence of Feudal Lords
- The emergence of feudal lords or feudatories played a significant role in the Gupta Empire’s decline.
- Yashodharman of Malwa, belonging to the Aulikara feudatory family, defeated Mihirkula and challenged Gupta’s authority successfully.
- Other feudatories across regions like Bihar, Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Valabhi, Gujarat, and Malwa rebelled against the Guptas, eventually establishing themselves as independent powers.
Economic Decline
- The loss of the western part of India by the end of the fifth century deprived the Gupta Empire of rich revenues from trade and commerce.
- This economic decline is reflected in the gold coins of later Gupta rulers, containing a lower percentage of gold and higher quantities of alloy metals. The extensive land grants for religious purposes and assigning land to officers instead of salaries further diminished state income, contributing to the economic downturn.
Weak Successors
- The successors of Skandagupta lacked strength and competence, leading to their inability to maintain a firm grip on the empire. Internal dissensions among royal princes weakened the Gupta rulers, ultimately contributing to their downfall.
Prelims Facts
- During ancient India, which dynasty’s reign was called as Golden Age of India’? Gupta Dynasty [UPPSC (Pre) 2004]
- Who was the first Gupta ruler to issue coins? Chandragupta 1 (UPPSC (Mains) 2010, 2011]
- The Ashoka pillar at Allahabad provides information about the reign of which ruler? – Samudragupta [IAS (Mains) 2004, UPPSC (Mains) 2004]
- The Allahabad pillar inscription was composed by whom? Harisena (WBCS (Pre) 2001, Tripura PSC (Pre) 2011, KPSC (Pre) 2013]
- What was the policy followed by Samudragupta in the South? -Dhamma Vijaya [WBCS (Pre) 2014]
- Which Gupta ruler was known as Lichchavi Dauhitra? – Samudragupta [WBCS (Pre) 2012]
- Which ruler succeeded Samudragupta as the next ruler of the Gupta dynasty? – Chandragupta II (WBCS (Pre) 2019)
- The first Gupta ruler to assume the title of ‘Param – Bhagawata’ was Chandragupta II (UPPSC (Pre) 2010]
- Which ruler of the Gupta dynasty was also known as Vikramaditya’? – Chandragupta 11 WBCS Pre 2014
- Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien mentioned a hospital in his records which was located in – Pataliputra [CGPSC (Pre) 2019)
- Which Gupta king took the title of ‘Mahendraditya’?- Kumaragupta [MPSC (Pre) 2018]
- The famous Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien visited India during the reign of which ruler? -Chandragupta I [BPSC (Pre) 2017]
- From which Inscription it is known that Skandagupta defeated Hunas? – Kumaragupta I [APSC (Pre) 2016]
- Karanika (HPSC (Pre) 2014] Which inscription reveals the information about the silk weaver guild? – Dashpur Inscription [MPPSC (Pre) 2019]
- Which port handled the North-Indian trade during the Gupta period? – Chandragupta II [WBCS (Pre) 2014]
UPSC NCERT Practice Questions
1. Which one of the following statements about Allahabad Prashasti is correct?
(a) It presents the Gupta empire as the epicenter of a complex web of varied Political relationships.
(b) Line 15 of it refers to the capturing of a king of the Kota family,
(c) Line 23 refers to Samudragupta violently exterminating several kings of Aryavarta.
(d) Line 20 refers to rulers offering tribute, and obeying the orders of the Gupta king.
2. Match List I with List Il and select the correct answer from the codes given below the hosts. UPPSC (Pre) 2018
| List I (Samudragupta’s Contemporary Kings of South India) | List II (Kingdoms) |
| A. Dhananjaya | 1. Avamukta |
| B. Nilaraja | 2. Kanchi |
| C. Ugrasena | 3. Kusthalpura |
| D. Vishnugopa | 4. Palaka |
Codes
a) 1 2 3 4
b) 2 1 4 3
c) 3 1 4 2
d) 4 3 2 1
3. Identify the person from the following descriptions. MPSC (Pre) 2018)
1. Founder of a great empire.
2. Cultured, scholar, and poet.
3. The famous poet Harisena was his court poet and Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu was in his court.
4. Vincent Smith praises him as the ‘Indian Napoleon’.
Codes
(a) Harisena
(b) Kanishka
(c) Samudragupta
(d) Chandragupta Maurya
4. Concerning Chandragupta II, which of the following statements) is/are correct? UPPSC (Pre) 2022
1. The strongest evidence in the context of Shaka’s victory is the silver coins of this king.
2. The weight of these coins used to be about 33 grains.
Select the correct answer from the codes given below.
(a) Both 1 and 2
(b) Only 1
(c) Neither 1 nor 2
(d) Only 2
5. Which among the following statements (s) regarding the Gupta dynasty is/are correct?
1. The Kumaramatyas were the most important officers and they were appointed directly by the king in the home provinces.
2. The village headmen lost importance and land actions began to be effected without their consent.
Select the correct answer from the codes given below.
(a) Only 1
(b) Only 2
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
6. Regarding the guilds (Shreni) of ancient India that played a very important role in the century’s economy, which of the following statements) is/are correct? IAS (Pre) 2012
1. Every guild was registered with the Central Authority of the state and the king was the Chief administrative authority on them.
2. The wages, rules of work, standards and prices were fixed by the guild.
3. The guild had Judicial powers over their members.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these
7. Read the following statements. CGPSC (Pre) 2008
1. Gupta emperors claimed divine rights for themselves.
2. Their administration was highly centralized
3. They elaborated on the tradition of land grants.
Which of the above statements is correct?
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 1 and 3
(c) 2 and 3
(d) All of these
8. Consider the following statements regarding Indian Feudalism in the early medieval period.
1. The revenue assignments were called Bhoga.
2. The hereditary chiefs neither collected revenues nor assumed administrative powers.
Which of the statements) given above is/are correct?
(a) Only 1
(b) Only 2
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
9. Identify the features that distinguished the Gupta age from the earlier ages. KPSC (Pre) 2014
1. Urban decay
2. Gold coins
3. Decentralization of power
4. Temple architecture
Select the correct statements) using the codes given below.
(a) 1, 2 and 4
(b) 1, 3 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) All of these
10. Which one of the following statements about Gupta coins are not correct?
(a) Gupta kings issued a large number of gold coins known as Dinar.
(b) Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I, Skandagupta, and Buddhagupta issued silver coins.
(c) The obverses of coins are carved with the images of the kings and on the reverse are carved with deities.
(d) The largest number of coins issued by the Guptas were of copper.
11. Who was the author of Mudrarakshasa? MPPSC (Pre) 2022
(a) Hemchandra
(b) Ballal
(c) Vishakhadutta
(d) Padmagupta
12. The Chinese pilgrim mentioned a hospital which is CGPSC (Pre) 2019
(a) Ujjain
(b) Koshambi
(c) Tamralipti
(d) Pataliputra
13. Which of the following statements) is/are correct?
1. Faxian’s, Gaoseng Faxian Zhuan was the earliest first-hand Chinese account of Buddhist sites and practices in India.
2. Faxian was only 25 years old at the time of writing the text.
3. Faxian’s main aim in coming to India was to obtain and take back texts containing Monastic rules.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) Only 2
(c) 1 and 3
(d) Only 3
14. Match the Following
| List I (Rulers) | List II (Queens) |
| A. Chandragupta I | 1. Dattadevi |
| B. Samudragupta | 2. Kubernaga |
| C. Chandragupta II | 3. Kumaradevi |
| D. Kumaragupta I | 4. Anantadevi |
Codes
a) 3 1 2 4
b) 2 1 3 4
c) 1 2 3 4
d) 4 3 2 1
15. Consider the following statements Punjab PSC (Pre) 2014
1. Prabhavati Gupta was the daughter of one of the most important rulers of early Indian History, Chandragupta I.
2. She was married into the ruling family of the Vakatakas, who were powerful in the Deccan.
Which of the above mentioned statements) is/are correct?
(a) Only 1
(b) Only 2
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
16. Which one of the following plays did Kalidasa write before writing Abhijnanasakuntalam?
(a) Vikramorvasiyam
(b) Malavikagnimitram
(c) Svapnavasavadattam
(d) Kadambari
17. From the following, identify the facts known to Aryabhatta. KPSC (Pre) 2011
1. The Earth moves around the Sun.
2. The reasons for the eclipses of the Sun and the Moon.
3. The stars reflected the light of the Sun.
4. The planets moved in an elliptical way round the Sun.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) 1, 2 and 4
18. Who is considered the founder of Vakataka Dynasty? UPPSC (Pre) 2014
(a) Pravarasena I
(b) Vindhyashakti
(c) Rudrasena I
(d) Pravarasena II
19 . Which one of the following rulers conducted the four Ashwamedha?
(a) Pushyamitra Shunga
(b) Pravarasena I
(c) Samudragupta
(d) Chandragupta II
Know Right Answer
1 (c)
2 (c)
3 (a)
4 (a)
5 (a)
6 (c)
7 (c)
8 (c)
9 (d)
10 (d)
11 (c)
12 (d)
13 (c)
14 (a)
15 (b)
16 (a)
17 (d)
18 (b)
19 (b)
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Q1: What is the significance of the Gupta Age in Ancient Indian history?
Answer: The Gupta Age, also known as the Golden Age of India, was a crucial period in Ancient Indian history (circa 320 to 550 CE). It witnessed remarkable achievements in various fields, including art, literature, science, and mathematics. The Gupta rulers, such as Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II, played a pivotal role in fostering a cultural and intellectual renaissance in the Indian subcontinent.
Q2: Who were the notable rulers of the Gupta Dynasty during the Gupta Age?
Answer: The Gupta Dynasty had several notable rulers during the Gupta Age. Chandragupta I, the founder, laid the foundation, but it was under Samudragupta, known as the “Napoleon of India,” that the empire expanded significantly. Chandragupta II, also called Vikramaditya, is celebrated for his patronage of arts and literature. These rulers contributed to the flourishing of the Gupta Empire during this prosperous period.
Q3: What were the economic and cultural developments during the Gupta Age?
Answer: The Gupta Age witnessed economic prosperity and cultural advancements. Economically, the Gupta Empire was characterized by flourishing trade, agricultural productivity, and the use of gold coins. Culturally, it was a golden era with significant achievements in literature, art, and science. Notable works, such as Kalidasa’s Sanskrit plays and the development of the decimal numeral system, reflect the cultural and intellectual vibrancy of the time.
Q4: How did religion and philosophy evolve during the Gupta Age?
Answer: The Gupta Age saw the coexistence and synthesis of various religious and philosophical ideas. Hinduism continued to thrive, and the Gupta rulers were patrons of both Hinduism and Buddhism. The Nalanda University, a renowned center of Buddhist learning, flourished during this period. The Gupta Age is marked by a harmonious blend of different religious and philosophical traditions, contributing to the rich cultural tapestry of ancient India.
Q5: What is the legacy of the Gupta Age in Ancient Indian history?
Answer: The Gupta Age left a lasting legacy in Ancient Indian history. It is often referred to as the “Golden Age” due to the flourishing of arts, sciences, and literature. The achievements in fields like mathematics (Brahmagupta’s work), astronomy (Aryabhata), and literature (Kalidasa) continue to influence Indian culture. The Gupta Empire’s administrative and economic practices also laid the groundwork for future governance structures in the Indian subcontinent. Overall, the Gupta Age stands as a pinnacle of cultural and intellectual achievements in Ancient India.
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