UPSC NCERT Notes - Modern History - India after Independence

India’s journey after gaining independence in 1947 is a saga marked by a tapestry of socio-political transformations, economic reforms, and cultural rejuvenation. The post-independence era witnessed the emergence of a nascent democracy grappling with the challenges of nation-building amidst the backdrop of partition-induced turmoil. The modern history of India after independence encapsulates a narrative of resilience, evolution, and aspiration, as the nation navigated through the complexities of state-building, socio-economic development, and foreign policy alignments. Examining this pivotal period through the lens of UPSC NCERT notes on modern history provides invaluable insights into the shaping of contemporary India and the enduring legacies of its founding leaders.

Table of Contents

Challenges for Newly Independent India

Upon gaining independence in August 1947, India confronted a series of challenges, including the following:

Due to the partition, around 8 million refugees had migrated to the country from what became Pakistan. Providing them with homes and employment became a significant concern.
The issue of princely states, numbering almost 500, each governed by a Maharaja or Nawab, presented the challenge of convincing each ruler to join the new nation.
In the long term, India needed to establish a political system that would effectively address the aspirations and expectations of its diverse population.
The country had to adopt a constitution, fostering a consensus on the guiding principles that would underpin it.
India grappled with the colonial legacy that had depleted its economic wealth and industries, leaving the masses impoverished and agricultural lands concentrated in the hands of a few.

Chamber of Princes

Princely states constituted 25% of the population and covered 2/5 of the entire Indian territory. The Princely States were categorized into 109 states with complete legislative and judicial authority, 127 states with restricted legislative and judicial authority, and 326 states of a feudal nature.
The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 proposed the establishment of a Consultative Committee. The State People’s Movement gained momentum with the formation of Narendra Mandal or the Chamber of Princes. The integration of all these movements at the national level led to the creation of the All India State People’s Conference (AISPC) in 1927.
In 1921, King George V of the British Crown ordered the establishment of the Chamber of Princes as a platform for the princely states in India, allowing these rulers to convey their views to the British Government.

Integration of Princely States after Independence

According to the Indian Independence Act of 1947, all Indian states were given the freedom to accede to either the new Dominion of India or Pakistan.
A decision was made to completely abolish the practice of monarchy, and all princely states were to be annexed.
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel led the State Department in the National Provisional Government established at the time of independence.

Sardar Patel, assisted by VP Menon, the Secretary of the Ministry of the States, was entrusted with the formidable task of integrating the princely states.

He played a crucial role in negotiating with the rulers of princely states and diplomatically bringing the majority of them into the Indian Union.
Lord Mountbatten also supported Sardar Patel and his team in the mission for the integration of states.
The annexations were based on mainly three factors: Defense, Foreign affairs, and Communication.
136 jurisdictional states acceded to the Indian Union by 15th August, while many states, such as Kashmir in October 1947 and Hyderabad in 1948, signed the Instrument of Accession a bit later.
VP Menon successfully negotiated instruments of accession with several small states, starting with the integration of the various tiny provinces of Orissa into a single state in February 1947. Additionally, the Union of Kathiawar was formed by including minor states in Kathiawar.
This was followed by the subsequent accession and merger of many remaining tiny states over the next five months.

Manipur

The Maharaja of Manipur, Bodhachandra Singh, signed the Instrument of Accession with the Indian government before India’s Independence, with the assurance that the internal autonomy of Manipur would be maintained.

Under the pressure of public opinion, the Maharaja held elections in Manipur in June. Manipur was the first part of India to hold an election based on Universal Adult Franchise.

Travancore

Travancore was the first princely state to refuse accession to the Indian Union. By 1946, Dewan of Travancore, Sir CP Ramaswamy Aiyar, declared his intention of forming an independent state open to the idea of signing a treaty with the Indian Union.
However, he changed his mind soon after surviving an assassination attempt by a member of the Kerala Socialist Party. On 30th July 1947, Travancore joined India.

Hyderabad

Nizam Mir Usman Ali presided over a largely Hindu population in the princely state of Hyderabad. It was the largest and richest of all princely states, covering a significant portion of the Deccan plateau. He also refused to join the Indian dominion and kept expanding his army by importing arms from Europe.
The situation worsened when the Razakars, an armed Muslim separatist group, unleashed violence targeted at Hyderabad’s Hindu residents. On 13th September 1948, Indian troops were sent to Hyderabad under Operation Pola. The armed encounter lasted for about four days, and in the end, Hyderabad became an integral part of India.

Kashmir

It was a princely state with a Hindu king ruling over a predominantly Muslim population. The ruler of Kashmir, Maharaja Hari Singh, had proposed a standstill agreement to both India and Pakistan, pending a final decision on the state’s accession.
Pakistan entered into the standstill agreement but invaded Kashmir from the North with an army of soldiers and tribesmen carrying weapons. The Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir appealed to India for help. He sent his representative, Sheikh Abdullah, to Delhi to ask for India’s assistance.

On 26th October 1947, Maharaja Hari Singh signed an Instrument of Accession for the Jammu & Kashmir state. According to this agreement, Indian jurisdiction would extend to external affairs, communications, and defense.

On 5th March 1948, Maharaja Hari Singh announced the formation of an interim government with Sheikh Abdullah as the Prime Minister.

Junagarh

The princely state of Junagarh also did not accede to the Indian Union by 15th August 1947. The ruler of Junagarh, Muhammad Mahabat Khanji III, argued that Junagarh adjoined Pakistan by sea and chose to accede to Pakistan on 15th September 1947. However, Mangrol and Babariawad differed from Junagarh and chose to join India.
India surrounded the princely state on all its land borders. In the meantime, the Nawab was forced to flee to Karachi with his family. The merger of Junagarh with India was completed in January 1949. Many other annexed states, namely Baroda, Kolhapur, and Gujarat, were added to the then Bombay Province.
Another form of integration involved the creation of seven centrally administered areas, leading to the establishment of Himachal Pradesh, Vindhya Pradesh (present-day Madhya Pradesh), Tripura, Manipura, Bhopal, Kachchh, and Bilaspur. Additionally, states like United States of Matsya, Union of Vindhya Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, Patiala and East Punjab States Union, and Rajasthan were also integrated into India.
Despite numerous integrations, unification remained incomplete until the surrender of Pondicherry (Puducherry) and Chandannagar to India on 1st November 1954 by the French authorities. Further, in December 1961, the Indian Army fully liberated Goa, Daman, and Diu from the control of the Portuguese government.
The dedicated efforts of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and his team successfully integrated the Indian states, forming a unified nation of India.

Reorganization of States and the Linguistic Problem

In the 1920s, the Indian National Congress had promised that once the country achieved independence, each major linguistic group would have its own province.
However, after independence, both Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime Minister Vallabhbhai
Patel opposed the creation of linguistic states. • Kannada, Malayalam, and Marathi speakers had all anticipated having their own state. However, the strongest protests came from the Telugu-speaking districts of what was the Madras Presidency.

During Nehru’s campaign there in the general elections of 1952, he faced black flags and slogans demanding “We want Andhra.”

In October 1952, a veteran Gandhian named Potti Sriramulu went on a hunger strike, demanding the formation of Andhra State.
To safeguard the interests of Telugu speakers, Potti Sriramulu initiated a hunger strike on October 1, 1952. Unfortunately, on December 15, 1952, the 58th day of his fast, Potti Sriramulu passed away. Consequently, on October 1, 1953, the new state of Andhra Pradesh was established in his memory.

A States Reorganisation Commission was established, which submitted its report in 1956. The commission recommended redrawing district and provincial boundaries to create compact provinces for Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, and Telugu speakers, respectively.

The Hindi-speaking region of North India underwent fragmentation into several states. In 1960, the bilingual state of Bombay was divided into separate states for Marathi and Gujarati speakers, and Punjab was also bifurcated into Punjab and Haryana based on linguistic lines.
Punjab was designated for Punjabi language speakers, who were predominantly Sikhs. Haryana was established for those who spoke languages other than Punjabi, primarily Haryanvi or Hindi.

Various Secessionist Movements

Movements	Naga Movement
Description	– Naga National Council (NNC) formed in 1946 under the leadership of Angami Zapu Phizo.
	– Declared Nagaland as an independent state on August 14, 1947.
	– Conducted a referendum in May 1951 claiming 99.9% support for a “sovereign Nagaland.”
	– Key demand: Greater Nagalim (sovereign statehood) involving redrawing of boundaries in North-East.
	– Includes parts of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Assam, and Myanmar.
	– Demand includes a separate Naga Yezabo (Constitution) and Naga national flag.

Movements	Mizo Movement
Description	– Mizo National Front uprising started on February 28, 1966, aimed at establishing a sovereign nation for Mizos.
	– Mizoram Accord signed on June 30, 1986, between MNF and the Government of India, bringing peace and stability.
	– Accord marked the end of violence and insurgency that began in 1966.

Movements	Khalistan Issue
Description	– Sikh separatist movement seeking to establish a Sikh homeland in Punjab region.
	– 1983: Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale seized Golden Temple, leading to Operation Blue Star and Indira Gandhi’s assassination.
	– 1990s: Insurgency declined due to police crackdown, factional infighting, and disillusionment among Sikh population.

Movements	Naxalism
Description	– Originated in 1967 in Naxalbari, West Bengal, against local landlords over a land dispute.
	– Spread across Eastern India, particularly in less developed areas of states like Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh.
	– Red Corridor: Region in Central, Eastern, and Southern India experiencing severe Naxalite-Maoist insurgency.
	– Naxals support Maoist political sentiments and ideology.
	– Operation Green Hunt started in 2010, involved massive deployment of security forces in Naxal-affected areas.
	– Government initiated the ‘Relief and Rehabilitation Policy’ to bring Naxalites into mainstream.

National Foreign Policy until the Nehruvian Era (1964)

Following independence, the paramount focus was on formulating the National Foreign Policy to guide India’s interactions with other nations and its approach to global issues. Jawaharlal Nehru assumed the dual roles of the first Prime Minister and Foreign Minister of Independent India, leading the nation until his demise in 1964.
Nehru’s 17-year tenure as India’s Prime Minister left an enduring impact on future generations, shaping political ideologies, economic planning, and socio-cultural visions. His engagements with the USSR, progressive socialist intellectuals, and interactions with representatives of the National Liberation Movement in Asia, Africa, and Latin America played a crucial role in shaping his foreign policy perspectives.

The primary objectives of Nehru’s Foreign Policy can be summarized as follows:

To safeguard India’s sovereignty.
To protect territorial integrity.
To foster rapid economic development.

Nehru aimed to achieve these objectives through the policy of the Non-Alignment Movement (NAM).

The Nehruvian Era after Independence (1947-1964)

Year	Event
1947	Became the first P.M. of India
1948	Constituted Atomic Energy Commission
1950	Set up Indian Council for Cultural Relations
1952	Conducted first General elections in India
1954	Signed Panchsheel agreement
1956	Supported Egypt on the Suez Canal issue
1957	First Atomic Reactor (Trombay)
1959	Inaugurated Panchayati Raj
1960	Indus-Water Treaty with Pakistan
1961	Military action at Goa, Daman, and Diu
1962	Sino-India War
1964	Death on 27th May

Foreign Policy

India attained independence shortly after the conclusion of the Second World War, while the United Nations, established in 1945, was in its early stages. The 1950s and 1960s witnessed the onset of the Cold War, characterized by conflicts between the USA and the USSR, both of which formed military alliances.
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, concurrently serving as the Foreign Minister of the newly independent India, formulated the nation’s foreign policy against the backdrop of this global context.
Non-alignment became the cornerstone of this foreign policy, championed by statesmen from Egypt, Yugoslavia, Indonesia, Ghana, and India. The Non-Aligned Movement advocated for countries to refrain from aligning with either of the two major alliances. However, this policy of non-alignment did not imply isolation or neutrality.
Non-aligned nations, including India, actively engaged in mediating between the American and Soviet alliances, striving to prevent wars and often adopting humanitarian and moral stances against armed conflicts. The Panchsheel Agreement, addressing the Tibet issue, was signed between India and China in 1954.

Asian Relations Conference, 1947

Under Jawaharlal Nehru’s guidance, the Asian Relations Conference convened in New Delhi in March-April 1947. Several Asian nations utilized the conference as a platform to declare their independence from colonial authority. Distinguished leaders from Asia discussed issues impacting their respective countries.

Limitations of Foreign Policy

Post-1985, Indo-US relations entered a phase of strategic ties, influenced by India’s stance during the Cold War era (NAM), US reservations regarding India’s Nuclear command (formation of NSG), and India’s role as a market post-LPG reforms.
The defeat in the Sino-India War of 1962 led to criticism of Nehru’s earlier policies, such as supporting China for a seat in the United Nations Security Council. Undefined borders with China and disputes over the recognition of the McMahon Line resulted in conflicts (1962), diplomatic strains, and trade wars.

Panchsheel Agreement

The Panchsheel, or five principles of peaceful coexistence, was formally signed on April 29, 1954, between India and China. This agreement involved the then Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, and China’s first Prime Minister, Chou En-Lai.

The key points of the Panchsheel Agreement included:

Peaceful coexistence
Mutual respect’s territorial integrity and sovereignty
Mutual non-interference
Mutual non-aggression
Equality and mutual benefits

Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

The inaugural Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, held a meeting with Nkrumah from Ghana, Nasser from Egypt, Sukarno from Indonesia, and Tito from Yugoslavia (now Serbia) in New York (USA) in October 1960. These five leaders constituted the core leadership of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
India’s foreign policy in the early post-independence period reflected these principles. Besides global concerns, India had its own set of issues to address.
As a nation emerging from the aftermath of World Wars, India aimed to conduct its foreign relations by respecting the sovereignty of all nations and ensuring security through the maintenance of peace, aligned with the Directive Principles of State Policy.
Internal and external factors influenced the behavior of individuals or families, and similarly, both domestic and international environments shaped the foreign policy of a nation. During this period, the Cold War was in its early stages, leading to the world’s division into two camps.
The foreign policy of a nation is a reflection of the interplay between domestic and external factors. Therefore, the noble ideals that fueled India’s struggle for freedom played a significant role in shaping its foreign policy.

Bandung Conference

The Afro-Asian Conference held in the Indonesian city of Bandung in 1955, commonly known as the Bandung Conference, marked the pinnacle of India’s engagement with the newly independent nations of Asia and Africa.
Bandung Conference eventually led to the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), with the first summit held in Belgrade in September 1961, where Jawaharlal Nehru served as a co-founder.

India’s stance on NAM

India’s stance on NAM involved raising concerns about newly decolonized countries aligning with any specific alliance. While India was eager to assert its presence in global political matters, it aimed to mitigate rivalry between the two power blocs.

Participation in NAM benefited India in two significant ways:

It enabled India to make decisions that prioritized its interests over aligning with either superpower or their allies.
NAM provided an opportunity for India to balance its relations with the superpowers based on its strategic interests.
Despite occasional criticisms of India’s inconsistency and contradictory positions, the NAM policy has, for the most part, been successful. Jawaharlal Nehru is credited for proposing this intelligent and thoughtful idea.
On January 26, 1950, India became a republic, officially ending its symbolic monarchical ties with Britain. Nehru opted to remain in the British Commonwealth of Nations but as a republic, not as a dominion under the British monarchy.

PL: 480 Agreement:

In 1959, President Dwight D. Eisenhower visited India, and in 1960, a four-year PL 480 Agreement was established between the USA and India. According to the agreement, the USA would meet India’s food demand by exporting food grains. In 1964, the USA helped India overcome a severe food shortage by exporting a substantial amount of food grains.
However, this agreement had negative implications as India became dependent on the USA for food security. During the 1965 India-Pakistan war, the USA halted the supply of food grains to India.

India’s Relations with Other Countries

India, situated as the pole star in the South Asian region, faces the challenge of navigating a somewhat unstable neighborhood. Despite this, the country emphasizes the significance of peace and stability for its growth and development, given its central position in South Asia.
India’s Neighbourhood First policy reflects a mature understanding of the common heritage, shared culture, and civilization that have been interwoven over time. The neighboring countries include Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar.

India-China Relations:

China, as the largest country and a major power in India’s neighborhood, shares a relationship dating back over 2000 years, with modern relations formalized in 1950. India was among the first countries to sever ties with the Republic of China (Taiwan) and recognize the People’s Republic of China (PRC) as the legitimate government of mainland China.
Both India and China, being the two most populous countries and among the fastest-growing major economies globally, have seen an increased significance in their bilateral relationship.

Relations after 1947

Despite historical border disputes, including conflicts such as the Sino-Indian War of 1962, the Cho La Incident in 1967, and the 1987 Sino-Indian Skirmish, diplomatic and economic ties have been successfully rebuilt since the late 1980s.
Cultural and economic exchanges between the two nations trace back to ancient times, with the Silk Road playing a crucial role in facilitating trade and the spread of Buddhism from India to East Asia. In recent years, China has become India’s largest trading partner, marking a shift towards strengthened strategic and military relations.

India-China Disputes

Post-1957, the relationship between India and China became strained due to territorial disputes concerning Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh. The issue of Tibet further fueled tensions between the two nations.

Border Disputes

The India-China border lacks clear demarcation, and there is no mutually agreed Line of Actual Control (LAC) that separates Indian-controlled territory from Chinese-controlled territory. India asserts the LAC to be 3488 km long, while China claims it to be approximately 2000 km. Despite robust economic trade, the border dispute remains unresolved.
The Eastern Sector, including Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim, features a disputed boundary over the McMahon Line established in 1914. The Twarig tract, claimed by China, was taken over by India in 1951. Both nations witnessed conflict in 1962 and 1967 in the Eastern and Western sectors.

New Approach Towards China

Recognizing the potential in the India-China relationship, India has adopted a three-pronged policy:
Engagement in bilateral and multilateral forums such as BRICS, SCO, and the Russia-India-China trilateral to maintain overall stability, enhance economic ties, and foster diplomatic cooperation on regional and global issues.
Alignment with the views of the USA, Australia, and Japan, showcasing growing convergence, especially in the Indo-Pacific region. This collaboration addresses concerns about China’s territorial claims in the South China Sea and sovereign territories of Japan.

India-Pakistan Relation

Despite seven decades of independence and partition, Pakistan remains a significant challenge to India’s foreign policy. The historical engagement and disengagement between India and Pakistan have been complex and enduring.
India and Pakistan have engaged in four wars, occurring in 1948, 1965, 1971, and 1999, with none initiated by India, making Pakistan the most significant security threat to India.

Conflicts Between India and Pakistan

The division of India and the creation of Pakistan led to numerous disputes, and Pakistan’s political landscape endured fluctuations over the years.

Kashmir Crisis

The Kashmir issue remains a fundamental point of contention between the two nations, marked by an unresolved boundary dispute. A historic decision was made by the Indian government to revoke Article 370, separating Ladakh from Jammu and Kashmir and creating both as Union Territories.
This move has reshaped the dynamics of the India-Pakistan dialogue on Kashmir, eliminating the need for a back-channel to address the issue. India now focuses on its claim to Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK), which includes Gilgit-Baltistan.

The Indus Water Treaty

The Indus Water Treaty, facilitated by the World Bank and signed in Karachi on September 19, 1960, is a water-sharing agreement between India and Pakistan.
Signed by then-Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and President Ayub Khan, the treaty pertains to the Indus river system, comprising three Western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab) and three Eastern rivers (Sutlej, Beas, and Ravi).
The agreement allocates exclusive use of the Eastern rivers to India before they enter Pakistan, while Pakistan has exclusive rights to the Western rivers, with certain stipulations for the development of projects on these rivers in India.

1965 and Tashkent Agreement

In April 1965, Pakistan launched an armed attack in the Rann of Kuchchh area of Gujarat, followed by a more significant offensive in Jammu and Kashmir in August 1965.
The hostilities concluded with Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan signing the Tashkent Agreement in January 1966.

Shimla Agreement

After months of diplomatic tension and military buildup, a full-scale war between India and Pakistan erupted in December 1971. Within 10 days, the Indian army had surrounded Dhaka from three sides, leading the Pakistani army of about 90,000 to surrender. With the birth of Bangladesh as an independent nation, India declared a unilateral ceasefire. On July 3, 1972, India and Pakistan signed the Shimla Agreement to restore peace. This historic agreement was signed by the then Prime Minister of India, Mrs. Indira Gandhi, and Prime Minister of Pakistan, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. Many in India viewed this agreement as a moment of glory, highlighting India’s growing military prowess.

Gujral Doctrine

In 1997, Inder Kumar Gujral, serving as the Foreign Minister, made a significant contribution through the Gujral Doctrine.
This set of five principles aimed to guide India’s conduct of foreign relations, particularly with its immediate neighbors, including Pakistan.
Subsequently, Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee initiated various processes for peace with Pakistan, engaging in talks first with Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif and later with General Pervez Musharraf. Despite differences, these discussions led to the Lahore summit in 1999, but the unexpected Kargil conflict disrupted the peace process.

India-Nepal Relations

Nepal stands as the closest neighbor to India, sharing a border of approximately 1850 km with 20 districts and five Indian states – Sikkim, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.
The relationship between India and Nepal is unique, defined by a bond of friendship and cooperation characterized by open borders and deeply rooted people-to-people connections of kinship and culture. This association has a long-standing tradition of free movement of people across borders, fostering regular visits and exchanges of views at the highest levels, contributing to the continual upward trajectory of India-Nepal relations.
The foundation of the India-Nepal relationship is laid by the India-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1950. According to the provisions of this treaty, Nepalese citizens have enjoyed unprecedented advantages in India, availing facilities and opportunities on par with Indian citizens. The treaty has played a crucial role in helping Nepal overcome the challenges of being a landlocked country.

Key Features of the 1950 India-Nepal Treaty:

The treaty solidified a special relationship between India and Nepal.
It granted Nepal preferential economic treatment.
Nepalese citizens in India were provided with the same economic and educational opportunities as Indian citizens.
The treaty established security cooperation between the two nations.
Nepal committed to giving priority to India in the establishment of industries, hydro-power projects, and exploration of natural resources.
Nepal agreed not to import arms from a third party without India’s consent.
Both countries pledged to provide national treatment to each other’s nationals concerning business, employment, and public sector employment.

India-Bangladesh Relations

India and Bangladesh share a rich history, marked by common heritage, cultural, civilizational, and linguistic ties. The extensive 4096 km border between the two nations is the longest India shares with any country.

India was the pioneer in recognizing Bangladesh as a distinct and independent nation, establishing diplomatic relations promptly.

The geographical proximity of India and Bangladesh creates an opportunity for both countries to enhance their connectivity links and economies.
During the liberation struggle, India provided financial and material support to the Bangladeshi Mukti Vahinis. However, the full resolution of the issue required military intervention against Pakistan. Before gaining independence in 1971, Bangladesh was known as East Pakistan.
The decisive victory in the 1971 war resulted in the birth of Bangladesh, with Mujib-ur-Rehman becoming its first Prime Minister. Subsequently, the Awami League was replaced by the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) led by Zia-ur-Rehman after Mujib-ur-Rehman’s assassination.
India-Bangladesh relations have witnessed fluctuations, alternating between positive and challenging times. From 1975 to 1990, Bangladesh was under the rule of military leader General Irshad. Since 1991, the country has seen alternating governance between the BNP and Awami League, leading to phases of highs and lows in the relationship.
In contrast to India’s relationships with other neighboring nations, the economic aspect has played a significant role in bilateral relations with Bangladesh. These relations encompass various dimensions, including trade transactions, credit arrangements, joint ventures, transit facilities, and transport development.
Despite political challenges, these economic ties have continued and expanded, owing to geographical proximity, shared language, similar consumption patterns, common developmental needs, shared experiences, and a common infrastructure legacy.
Bangladesh has increasingly relied on India as its primary source of imports, causing evident political discontent due to this dependency.

India and Bangladesh share a vast land border of almost 4096 km, with official records indicating that only 6.5 km along the Comilla-Tripura border is officially disputed by both governments.

Border disputes extend beyond demarcation issues, involving challenges such as illegal migration of people and goods, as well as other cross-border criminal activities.
In 2011, the demarcation of land boundaries between the two countries occurred in accordance with the 1974 agreement. However, a real exchange of territories necessitated a constitutional amendment due to changes in the 1st schedule.
Water sharing remains a critical element shaping India-Bangladesh ties, with the Teesta River dispute and the proposed construction of the Tipalmukh Dam at the center of the controversy.
The 1983 Teesta River Agreement allocates 75% of the river water to India and Bangladesh on a 39% and 36% basis, with a major dispute arising from India’s construction and operation of the Farakka Barrage impacting water supply in the Hooghly River.

Development in Indo-Bangladesh Relations After 1990

Post-1990, developments in Indo-Bangladesh relations include agreements to supply gas to Tripura and the utilization of Chattogram and Mongla ports to serve the needs of Northeast states, marking a significant improvement in relations.
The opening of a skill development center in Bangladesh for youth training, the construction of the Agartala-Akhaura rail connectivity, and a joint Indo-Russian atomic energy project further contribute to the integration of economies. India will provide personnel training, and consultation support, and supply non-critical materials to the site in Bangladesh.
Enhancing regional stability, India has introduced the South Asian Satellite and extended the National Knowledge Project to support human resource development and education in Bangladesh.

India-Sri Lanka Relations

Sri Lanka, situated as an island state in the Indian Ocean region, holds strategic geopolitical significance for several major powers.
The relationship between India and Sri Lanka spans over 2500 years, characterized by a legacy of intellectual, cultural, religious, and linguistic interactions.

The Cultural Cooperation Agreement, signed by both governments on November 29, 1977, serves as the foundation for periodic cultural exchange programs between India and Sri Lanka.

In 1987, the Indo-Sri Lankan accord was signed to provide a political solution to Sri Lanka’s conflict. India deployed the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) in Sri Lanka under Operation Pawan to disarm various militant groups. The IPKF was later withdrawn in 1989.
India and Sri Lanka share a robust trade and investment relationship, with bilateral trade witnessing rapid growth in the past decade. Several leading Indian private sector companies have invested in Sri Lanka, establishing a significant presence in the country.

Sri Lanka stands as India’s second-largest trade partner in South Asia, while India is Sri Lanka’s largest trade partner globally. Notably, the first-ever Free Trade Agreement (FTA) signed by India was with Sri Lanka

Due to the proximity of their territorial waters, particularly in the Palk Straits and the Gulf of Mannar, incidents involving the straying of fishermen are common. Sri Lanka has repeatedly accused Indian fishermen of entering its territorial waters, especially around Katchchativu, an islet ceded to Sri Lanka in 1974.
Both countries have agreed on specific practical arrangements to address the issue of genuine fishermen from either side crossing the International Maritime Boundary Line.
Sri Lanka has consistently been a top-priority destination for direct investment from India and stands as one of India’s largest trading partners within the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).
The trade between these two nations experienced substantial growth, particularly following the implementation of the India-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement in March 2000. Additionally, India and Sri Lanka engage in joint military exercises (Mitra Shakti) and naval exercises (SLINEX).
A trilateral maritime security agreement has been signed among India, Maldives, and Sri Lanka to enhance surveillance, conduct anti-piracy operations, and reduce maritime pollution in the Indian Ocean Region.

India and Bhutan

Similar to Nepal, Bhutan was never part of the British Indian Empire. Bhutan’s strategic importance lies in its role as a desirable buffer and a valuable intermediary with Tibet. The 1949 India-Bhutan Friendship Treaty, modeled after the 1910 treaty between Britain and Bhutan, outlined Bhutan’s commitment to be guided by Britain in its foreign relations, with Britain agreeing not to interfere in its internal affairs.

On August 8, 1949, India signed the Treaty of Friendship with Bhutan, where both nations agreed to the principle of non-interference in each other’s internal matters, with India playing a predominant role in guiding Bhutan’s foreign policy.

Indo-Russian Relations

Commencing in the 1950s, India received substantial assistance from the Soviet Union for its industrialization, particularly in strategically significant areas like defense, space, and atomic energy.
In 1955, Nehru visited the Soviet Union, reciprocated by Nikita Khrushchev, the leader of the Communist Party of the USSR, visiting India in the same year

Despite the Soviet Union maintaining a neutral stance during the Indo-China War of 1962, it supported India’s sovereignty in the territorial dispute over the Kashmir region. The Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation was signed between the two nations in 1971.

Indo-US Relations

The historical ties between India and the United States can be traced back to India’s independence movement and have persisted long after gaining independence from the United Kingdom in 1947. In 1954, the United States formed a strategic alliance with Pakistan through the Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO). In response, India fostered strategic and military connections with the Soviet Union to counterbalance Pakistan-United States relations.
In 1961, India took a pivotal step by becoming a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement, aiming to steer clear of entanglement in the Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union.
The Nixon administration’s support for Pakistan during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 strained relations, a situation that persisted until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.
In the 1990s, India’s foreign policy adapted to the changing global landscape of a unipolar world, leading to the development of closer ties with the United States.

Prelims Facts

Which native state was in the favour of ‘Stand-Still Pact? – Hyderabad [UPPSC (Pre) 1997]
Which part of India remained under the Portugals after 15th August, 1947? – Goa IMPPSC (Pre) 2010]
Which principle was presented by Jawaharlal Nehru to establish peace and mutual cooperation in the world? – Panchsheel [BPSC (Pre) 2004]
Which three states delayed their accession to India even after the merger of the princely states? – Junagarh, Hyderabad, Jammu and Kashmir UPPSC (Pre) 1998)
When did the special rights and privy purse of the rulers of Indian Princely States ended? – 1917 [MPPSC (Pre) 2021]
Who were the founders of the ‘Hindu Mazdoor Sabhha, established in year 1948? – Ashok Mehta, TS Ramanujan, VS Mathur, GG Mehta [IAS (Pre) 2018]
What is ‘Operation Polo’ associated with? – Military Action in Hyderabad state [UPPSC (Pre) 2013]
When was the first Communist State Government formed in Kerala? – 1957 [CGPSC (Pre) 2014]
Who gave the slogan Jai-Jawan-Jai Kisan? – Lal Bahadur Shastri [BPSC (Pre) 1992]
which date the maker of the Constitution of India Dr Ambedkar died? – 6th December, 1956 (UPPSC (Pre) 1990)
Which lady contributed the largest in the indian politics after 1947? – Aruna Asaf Ali (BPSC (Pre) 1997]
Who hailed Mohd Ali Jinnah most responsible for the partition of India? – Lord Mountbatten |UKPSC (Mains) 2002)
The first Communist Government of India was established is the province of – Kerala [UPPSC (Pre) 2010)
Who is considered as the creator of modern Bihar? – Sachchidananda Sinha [BPSC (Pre) 2019)
The religious organisation established by Mother Teresa is called – Missionaries of Charity [BPSC (Pre) 1992]
Bangladesh was established as an independent nation after the Indo-Pakistan War of – December, 1971 (MPPSC (Pre) 2014
In which year did the unification of Germany took place? – 3rd October, 1990 IMPPSC (Pre) 1991]
The National Song ‘Aie Mere Watan Ke Logo’ had been written by which poet? – Pradeep [UKPSC (Pre) 2006]

UPSC NCERT Practice Questions

1. In August 1947, who of the following leaders did not participate anywhere in Independence Day celebrations? UPPSC (Mains) 2016

(a) Jawaharlal Nehru

(b) Mahatma Gandhi

(d) Rajendra Prasad

2. Which three states delayed their accession to India even after the merger of other Princely States? UPPSC (Pre) 1998

(a) Junagarh, Mysore, Jammu and Kashmir

(b) Junagarh, Hyderabad, Jammu and Kashmir

(d) Hyderabad, Udaipur, Travancore

3. A country’s foreign policy is generally determined by an interplay of four factors. Which is not one of the factors?

(a) National Interest.

(b) Nature, type and relations with developed countries.

(d) Geographical location.

4. Which of the following is not one of the objectives of India’s Foreign Policy?

(a) Maintenance of freedom in policy formulation.

(b) Cooperation with World Bank Organisations:

d) Opposition to colonialism, racism and imperialism.

5. The Indian Foreign Policy of Non-Alignment was initiated by UPPSC (Mains) 2014

(a) Jawaharlal Nehru

(b) Mrs. Indira Gandhi

(d) Morarji Desai

6. Which of the following statement is correct regarding Non-Aligned Movement?

(a) The roots of NAM went back to the friendship between Yugoslavia’s Josip Broz Tito, India’s Jawaharlal Nehru, and Egypt’s leader Gilani.

(b) The arst Non-Aligned Summit was held in Bandung in 1961.

(d) None of the above

7. The famous Panchsheel Agreement between Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Chinese Prime Minister Zhou Enlai was signed in which year?

(a) 1952

(b) 1953

(d) 1955

8. Which of the following is not a principle of ‘Panchsheel’? IAS (Pre) 1997

(a) Non-Alignment.

(b) Peaceful co-existence.

(d) Mutual non-interference in each other’s internal affairs.

9. Consider the following statements with respect to India’s Nuclear Policy.

1. India will keep nuclear weapons as deterrence and will not be the first to use it.

2. India is committed towards global disarmament and non-proliferation.

Which of the statements) given above is/are correct?

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

10. With reference to the ‘Look East Policy’ of India, consider the following statements. IAS (Pre) 2011

1. India wants to establish itself as an important regional player in the East Asian affairs.

2. India wants to plug the vacuum created by the terminations of the cold war.

3. India wants to restore the historical and cultural ties with its neighbours in South-East and East India.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) Only 1

(b) 1 and 3

(d) 1, 2 and 3

11. Which is the correct chronological order of the following? UPPSC (Mains) 2002

1. Shimla Agreement

2. Indo-Soviet Treaty

3. Farakka Accord

4. Tashkent Agreement

Codes

(a) 4, 2, 1, 3

(b) 3, 2, 1, 4

(d) 1, 2, 3, 4

12. The demand for democratization of United Nations is mainly from UKPSC (Pre) 2016

(a) General Assembly

(b) Economic and Social Council

(d) Trusteeship Council

Know Right Answer

1 (b)

2 (b)

3 (b)

4 (b)

5 (a)

6 (d)

7 (c)

8 (a)

9 (c)

10 (d)

11 (a)

12 (c)

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1: Why are NCERT notes important for UPSC Modern History, especially India after Independence?

A1: NCERT notes are crucial for UPSC Modern History as they provide a comprehensive and authentic overview of India’s post-independence period. The UPSC syllabus extensively covers topics from NCERT books, making them a fundamental resource for aspirants.

Q2: Which NCERT books are essential for UPSC Modern History preparation focused on India after Independence?

A2: The key NCERT books for Modern History post-independence include “India Since Independence” (Class XII), “Themes in Indian History Part III” (Class XII), and “Contemporary World Politics” (Class XII). These books offer in-depth insights into political, social, and economic developments.

Q3: How can one effectively utilize NCERT notes for UPSC Modern History preparation?

A3: To maximize the benefits of NCERT notes, aspirants should read the texts thoroughly, make concise notes, and focus on understanding key events, policies, and their implications. Integration of NCERT knowledge with current affairs is essential for a holistic understanding.

Q4: Are NCERT notes alone sufficient for UPSC Modern History preparation, or should aspirants refer to additional resources?

A4: While NCERT notes provide a strong foundation, supplementing them with advanced reference materials, books, and current affairs is advisable. This approach ensures a more nuanced understanding and helps aspirants tackle the diverse and dynamic nature of the UPSC examination.

Q5: How can UPSC aspirants effectively revise UPSC NCERT notes for Modern History?

A5: Regular revision is crucial. Aspirants should create a revision schedule, focus on key concepts, and use techniques like mind maps or flashcards to reinforce their understanding. Additionally, solving previous years’ question papers helps in gauging the depth of preparation and identifying areas that need further attention.

In case you still have your doubts, contact us on 9811333901.

For UPSC Prelims Resources, Click here

For Daily Updates and Study Material:

Join our Telegram Channel – Edukemy for IAS

1. Learn through Videos – here
2. Be Exam Ready by Practicing Daily MCQs – here
3. Daily Newsletter – Get all your Current Affairs Covered – here
4. Mains Answer Writing Practice – here

UPSC NCERT Notes – Modern History – India after Independence