Reasons for Urbanization
- Social:
- The desire for a better quality of life and access to urban amenities such as healthcare, education, and entertainment.
- Influence of media and urban culture, which can create a desire to move to cities.
- Rural-urban migration due to social factors such as marriage, family, and social networks.
- Economic:
- The availability of employment opportunities in urban areas due to the concentration of industries and services.
- The potential for higher income and better job prospects in urban areas.
- The growth of the service sector and increased demand for skilled labor.
- Political:
- The location of administrative and political institutions in urban areas, which creates opportunities for political activism and engagement.
- The attraction of political power and influence associated with living in a city.
- Modernization and changed lifestyle:
- The adoption of modern and urban lifestyles and values, which can make rural life seem unattractive in comparison.
- Access to modern technology and infrastructure, such as transportation and communication.
- Rural-urban transformation:
- Changes in agricultural practices, such as the growth of commercial farming and the decline of small-scale agriculture, can lead to rural depopulation and migration to urban areas.
- The expansion of urban areas and the conversion of rural areas to urban use, such as for industrial parks and housing developments.
- Commercialization:
- The growth of markets and trade in urban areas, which can create opportunities for entrepreneurship and small business development.
- The expansion of consumer culture and the availability of goods and services in urban areas.
Impacts of Urbanization
On Women
- Women in urban areas have a higher status compared to their rural counterparts due to factors such as education and liberalization.
- Urban women are more aware of their economic, social, and political rights and use them to protect themselves from exploitation and humiliation.
- The average age of girls at marriage is higher in cities than in villages.
- Although urban women have a higher status, they still face discrimination in the labour market, and equality of opportunity remains a challenge.
- Divorce and remarriage are new phenomena among urban women, who are more likely to seek legal remedies if they find it impossible to adjust after marriage.
- Politically, urban women are more active today, with an increasing number of women contesting elections at every level and holding important political positions.
- Rural women continue to be economically and socially dependent on men, while urban women are comparatively independent and enjoy greater freedom.
On Caste
Urbanization has had a significant impact on caste in India. Caste is a social system that divides people into distinct hierarchical groups based on birth, occupation, and social status. Historically, caste has been an important factor in determining social and economic opportunities for people in India. With urbanization, the traditional caste system has become more complex and varied. Here are some key points on urbanization and caste:
- Urbanization has led to the formation of new caste-based communities in urban areas. In many cities, people from the same caste tend to live in the same neighborhoods or localities, which can reinforce traditional caste-based hierarchies.
- At the same time, urbanization has also led to the emergence of new economic opportunities that are not necessarily tied to caste. For example, the growth of the service sector has created new jobs that are more accessible to people regardless of their caste.
- In some cases, urbanization has weakened traditional caste-based hierarchies. For example, in urban areas, people may be more likely to form relationships with others based on shared interests or experiences, rather than their caste.
- Urbanization has also led to the emergence of new forms of discrimination based on caste. For example, some landlords or employers may discriminate against people from certain castes when renting out properties or hiring employees.
- The impact of urbanization on caste is complex and varies across different regions of India. In some cases, urbanization has led to the emergence of new caste-based political movements, while in other cases, it has weakened traditional caste-based identities.
On Kinship
- When the population of a settlement exceeds a certain limit, it affects the nature of the city and the relationships between inhabitants.
- Greater numbers of individuals lead to increased differentiation between them, based on their personal traits, occupations, cultural practices, beliefs, and values.
- These variations result in spatial segregation and a lack of bonds between individuals based on kinship or long-term cohabitation.
- As a result, the growth in population brings changes to social relationships, including the absence of anonymity and the segmentation of human relationships.
Models of Urbanization
Smart Cities
| Aspects | Description |
| Energy Management | This aspect focuses on optimizing energy usage in the city. This includes the implementation of renewable energy sources, smart grids, and energy-efficient buildings. |
| Transportation | The transportation aspect of a smart city model aims to improve the efficiency, safety, and sustainability of the transportation system. This includes the use of smart traffic management systems, connected and autonomous vehicles, and public transportation improvements. |
| Waste Management | The waste management aspect aims to reduce waste generation, improve recycling, and properly dispose of waste. This includes the use of smart bins, waste-to-energy systems, and recycling programs. |
| Water Management | The water management aspect focuses on efficient use and conservation of water resources. This includes the use of smart irrigation systems, leak detection, and water quality monitoring. |
| Public Safety | The public safety aspect aims to improve the safety and security of citizens. This includes the use of smart surveillance systems, emergency response systems, and disaster management plans. |
| Healthcare | The healthcare aspect aims to improve the quality and accessibility of healthcare services. This includes the use of telemedicine, electronic health records, and health monitoring devices. |
| Education | The education aspect aims to improve the quality and accessibility of education. This includes the use of e-learning platforms, smart classrooms, and digital libraries. |
| Governance | The governance aspect focuses on improving transparency, accountability, and citizen participation in decision-making. This includes the use of e-governance platforms, open data initiatives, and citizen engagement programs. |
Relevance of Smart Cities
India’s urban transformation, which will shape 70% of the country’s built environment by 2030, presents significant opportunities for both domestic and international investment.
The Smart Cities Mission, which is being implemented by the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) and covers 100 cities, will run for five years from 2015 to 2020.
The program is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS), with the central government offering up to 100 crore per city per year, and the State/ULB contributing an equal amount on a matching basis.
To achieve sustainable growth, cities must become more liveable, safer, and offer clean air, reliable infrastructure, utilities, and opportunities for learning and employment. All 100 Smart Cities have established their Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs), formed their City Level Advisory Forums (CLAF), and appointed Project Management Consultants (PMCs), indicating that they are all in “Mission mode.”
The implementation of Integrated Command and Control Centres (ICCCs) in 15 cities has improved efficiency in governance, traffic management, law enforcement, grievance redressal, and reduced criminal incidents in public spaces.
The Smart Cities and AMRUT programs have opened up opportunities for local industries and global players to participate in the development of cities across various sectors, including utilities, housing, mobility, telecommunications, information technology, healthcare, education, and recreational facilities.
Waste management is also a priority under the Smart Cities Mission, with Agra planning to install 2,93,000 RFID-tagged garbage containers to maximize their efficiency.
HRIDAY Mission
HRIDAY (Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana) is a scheme launched by the Government of India in January 2015 with the objective of preserving and revitalizing the rich cultural heritage of historic cities in the country. The specific objectives of the HRIDAY mission include:
- Planning and developing heritage-sensitive infrastructure: The HRIDAY mission aims to improve the physical infrastructure of heritage cities by developing heritage-sensitive infrastructure such as roads, drainage systems, public spaces, and street lighting.
- Preserving and restoring heritage sites: The HRIDAY mission aims to conserve and restore the historic and cultural heritage sites in heritage cities such as ancient temples, forts, palaces, and monuments.
- Promoting cultural activities: The HRIDAY mission aims to promote cultural activities and events that celebrate the rich cultural heritage of heritage cities. This includes organizing festivals, exhibitions, and cultural shows.
- Capacity building: The HRIDAY mission aims to build the capacity of local stakeholders, such as residents, community groups, and government officials, to participate in the preservation and promotion of heritage sites.
- Sustainable development: The HRIDAY mission aims to promote sustainable development practices in heritage cities, such as the use of renewable energy sources and environmentally friendly building materials.
Rurban Mission
The RURBAN Mission, also known as Shyama Prasad Mukherji RURBAN Mission, is a scheme launched by the Government of India in February 2016 with the aim of improving the quality of life in rural areas by providing urban amenities and infrastructure. The following table provides a summary of the key components of the RURBAN Mission:
| Component | Description |
| Planning | The mission aims to promote the development of integrated cluster-based rural-urban development plans to address the socio-economic needs of rural areas. |
| Infrastructure | The mission aims to provide basic infrastructure such as roads, bridges, water supply, sanitation, and electrification to rural areas. |
| Economic Development | The mission aims to promote rural livelihoods and income generation through the development of agro-processing industries, small and medium enterprises, and skill development programs. |
| Skill Development | The mission aims to provide skill development training to rural youth to enhance their employability and income generation capacity. |
| Digital Literacy | The mission aims to promote digital literacy and the use of digital technologies in rural areas to improve access to government services and information. |
| Innovation | The mission aims to promote innovative approaches to rural development through the use of technology and knowledge-based solutions. |
| Institutional Development | The mission aims to strengthen local institutions such as Panchayati Raj institutions, Self-Help Groups, and Village Development Committees to ensure effective implementation of development programs. |
| Convergence | The mission aims to promote convergence between various central and state government schemes to ensure optimal utilization of resources and effective implementation of development programs. |
PM Awas Yojana
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) is a flagship housing scheme launched by the Government of India in June 2015 with the objective of providing affordable housing to all by 2022. The scheme has two components – Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban) and Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Gramin). The following are some key points of the PM Awas Yojana:
- Target beneficiaries: The scheme aims to provide affordable housing to people belonging to the economically weaker sections (EWS), lower income group (LIG), and middle-income group (MIG) categories.
- Subsidies: The scheme provides subsidy on home loans for EWS and LIG categories. The subsidy is provided in the range of 1% to 6.5% depending on the income category and loan amount.
- Credit Linked Subsidy Scheme (CLSS): Under the CLSS component of PMAY, beneficiaries can avail subsidy on home loans up to a maximum of Rs. 6 lakhs for a tenure of 20 years.
- Affordable housing: The scheme focuses on the construction of affordable housing units with basic amenities such as water supply, sanitation, and electricity.
- Beneficiary-led construction: The scheme promotes beneficiary-led construction where the beneficiaries are given the option to build their own houses instead of waiting for government-built houses.
- Public-Private Partnership (PPP): The scheme encourages PPP mode for the construction of affordable housing units to promote private sector participation in the housing sector.
- Technology-driven construction: The scheme promotes the use of modern and innovative technologies in construction to reduce the cost of construction and ensure timely completion of projects.
- Urban and Rural focus: The scheme has two components – PMAY (Urban) and PMAY (Gramin) – to provide affordable housing in both urban and rural areas.
AMRUT Mission
The Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) is a scheme launched by the Government of India in June 2015 with the objective of providing basic infrastructure and services in urban areas. The purpose of the AMRUT mission is to:
- Ensure basic infrastructure: The AMRUT mission aims to ensure that all urban households have access to basic infrastructure and services such as water supply, sewerage, drainage, urban transport, and parks and green spaces.
- Improve quality of life: The mission aims to improve the quality of life of urban residents by providing basic amenities and services that are essential for a decent standard of living.
- Sustainable development: The AMRUT mission promotes sustainable development practices such as the use of renewable energy sources, efficient water management, and environmentally friendly urban transport systems.
- Participatory planning: The mission aims to promote participatory planning and community engagement in the development of urban infrastructure and services to ensure that the needs and aspirations of urban residents are met.
- Capacity building: The AMRUT mission aims to build the capacity of urban local bodies (ULBs) to plan, implement and manage urban infrastructure and services.
- Technology-driven urban transformation: The mission aims to promote the use of modern and innovative technologies in the development of urban infrastructure and services to ensure efficiency, effectiveness and sustainability.
National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
The National Mission on Sustainable Habitat is a mission launched by the Government of India in 2008 with the objective of promoting sustainable development in urban and rural areas. The mission aims to achieve the following goals:
- Conservation of natural resources: The mission aims to promote the conservation of natural resources such as water, land, energy, and air quality through the adoption of sustainable practices.
- Sustainable urban and rural development: The mission aims to promote sustainable urban and rural development through the adoption of environmentally friendly and socially inclusive development practices.
- Building capacity: The mission aims to build the capacity of stakeholders such as urban local bodies, community organizations, and NGOs to promote sustainable development practices.
- Public awareness: The mission aims to create public awareness about the importance of sustainable development and the need for the adoption of sustainable practices.
- Knowledge management: The mission aims to promote the creation, dissemination, and application of knowledge related to sustainable development practices.
- Policy development: The mission aims to support the development of policies and regulations that promote sustainable development in urban and rural areas.
National Urban Housing Fund
The National Urban Housing Fund (NUHF) is a fund launched by the Government of India in 2018 with the objective of providing financial assistance to states and union territories for the implementation of various housing programs and projects in urban areas. The NUHF aims to achieve the following objectives:
- Financing affordable housing: The NUHF provides financial assistance to states and union territories for the implementation of various affordable housing programs and projects in urban areas.
- Improving housing infrastructure: The NUHF aims to improve the housing infrastructure in urban areas by providing financial assistance for the development of basic amenities and services such as water supply, sanitation, drainage, and solid waste management.
- Promoting sustainable development: The NUHF aims to promote sustainable development practices in the housing sector by providing financial assistance for the adoption of environmentally friendly and energy-efficient building practices.
- Facilitating private sector participation: The NUHF aims to facilitate private sector participation in the housing sector by providing financial assistance for public-private partnership (PPP) projects and promoting the use of innovative financing mechanisms.
- Capacity building: The NUHF aims to build the capacity of urban local bodies and state governments to plan, implement, and manage affordable housing programs and projects.
- Monitoring and evaluation: The NUHF aims to monitor and evaluate the progress of housing programs and projects in urban areas to ensure their timely implementation and effective utilization of funds.
National Urban Livelihood Mission
| Objective | Components |
| To reduce poverty and vulnerability of urban poor households | 1. Social mobilization and institution development (SM&ID) 2. Employment through skill training and placement (EST&P) 3. Self-employment program (SEP) 4. Support to urban street vendors (SUSV) 5. Shelter for urban homeless (SUH) |
| Social Mobilization and Institution Development (SM&ID) | Formation and capacity building of self-help groups (SHGs) and their federations, community mobilization and awareness campaigns, support to community-based organizations (CBOs) |
| Employment through Skill Training and Placement (EST&P) | Skill training of urban poor, entrepreneurship development, and wage employment through placement with private and public sector enterprises |
| Self-Employment Program (SEP) | Setting up of micro-enterprises by the urban poor with the help of bank loans and subsidy |
| Support to Urban Street Vendors (SUSV) | Organizing street vendors into groups or associations, issuing of identity cards, training and skill up-gradation, provision of credit facilities and development of vending zones |
| Shelter for Urban Homeless (SUH) | Providing temporary shelter and rehabilitation to urban homeless, setting up permanent shelters with basic amenities, capacity building of service providers |
Certain City Projects
In recent years, there has been a growing trend of developing new cities in India to accommodate the increasing population and address urbanization challenges. Here are some prominent examples of city projects that have been developed in recent years:
- Dholera SIR (Gujarat): Dholera Special Investment Region (SIR) is a greenfield industrial city located in Gujarat. It is spread over an area of 920 sq. km and is being developed as a global manufacturing and trading hub.
- Gujarat International Finance Tec-City (GIFT City) (Gujarat): GIFT City is a smart city located in Gujarat and is being developed as a global financial and IT hub. It has world-class infrastructure and is home to several leading companies and institutions.
- Palava (Maharashtra): Palava is a smart city located near Mumbai and is being developed as a sustainable and livable city. It has state-of-the-art infrastructure, modern amenities, and is home to a thriving community.
- Lavasa (Maharashtra): Lavasa is a planned hill city located near Pune and is being developed as a tourist destination and a weekend getaway. It has world-class infrastructure, scenic landscapes, and a range of recreational facilities.
- Gurgaon (Haryana): Gurgaon is a satellite city located near Delhi and is one of the fastest-growing cities in India. It is a leading commercial and financial hub and is home to several multinational companies.
- Smart City Kochi (Kerala): Smart City Kochi is a smart city located in Kerala and is being developed as a knowledge and innovation hub. It has world-class infrastructure and is home to several leading companies and institutions.
- Haldia (West Bengal): Haldia is an industrial town located in West Bengal and is being developed as a major industrial and port city. It has state-of-the-art infrastructure and is home to several large industries.
- Navi Mumbai Airport Influence Notified Area (Maharashtra): Navi Mumbai Airport Influence Notified Area is being developed as a smart city near the upcoming Navi Mumbai International Airport. It is being developed as a sustainable and livable city with modern amenities and infrastructure.
- Wave City (National Capital Region): Wave City is a smart city located near Delhi and is being developed as a self-sustaining and eco-friendly city. It has state-of-the-art infrastructure, modern amenities, and a range of recreational facilities.
Issues related to the schemes and initiatives
- Financing – The total investment approved for the smart city plans of 90 cities in India is Rs. 1,91,155 crores, but the major reason for non-performing assets is the financing by banks. The government is taking steps to address this issue by making changes in the budget.
- Lack of Center-State Coordination – Effective implementation of smart city projects requires coordination between various government bodies. Proper regulation is necessary for planning the development of smart cities. There is a need for both horizontal and vertical coordination among government bodies.
- Availability of Master Plan – Most cities in India lack master plans and development plans, which is a significant setback for developing them into smart cities. The presence of these plans is crucial for the successful implementation of smart city projects, as they monitor changes and improve efficiency.
- No Time Frame Attached to the Plan – The entire smart city plan needs to get all clearances on time, which is not happening in many cases. The establishment of a single regulatory body to monitor all necessary approvals for the project is essential. This will address the issues of coordination and timely execution, and the body should be solely responsible for catering to financial requirements.
- Availability of Facilities – India lacks skilled manpower and advanced technology required for developing 100 smart cities. There is a need for capacity building and creating skilled labor, but not much funds have been allocated by the center and state governments for such initiatives. These projects require training, research, and a significant database for successful execution.
- Corruption – Corruption is the root cause of all the above challenges, and it is prevalent at both center and state levels. Corruption leads to coordination mismatch, time lags, and financial constraints in the execution of smart city projects. It has been a challenge for most big projects in the country.
Manual Scavenging
Manual scavenging is a practice that involves the manual cleaning of human excreta from public and private toilets, open drains, and septic tanks using basic tools and bare hands. It is a significant urban issue in India, particularly in the poorer areas of cities.
Despite being banned since 1993, manual scavenging continues to exist due to various social, economic, and cultural reasons. The practice is often associated with caste-based discrimination, where lower castes are forced to perform this dehumanizing work. Women are also disproportionately affected by this practice, as they are often employed to clean community toilets and dry latrines.
Manual scavenging is not only a violation of human rights but also poses a significant health hazard to the workers involved in the practice. They are at risk of contracting several diseases such as tuberculosis, hepatitis, and other infections.
To tackle this issue, the Indian government has launched various initiatives such as the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan and the National Scheme for Liberation and Rehabilitation of Scavengers. However, more needs to be done to eradicate this inhumane practice completely.
The Indian Constitution and various laws have provisions to prohibit manual scavenging, which is considered a discriminatory and degrading practice. Here are some of the constitutional and legislative provisions related to manual scavenging in India:
- The Constitution of India: Article 17 of the Indian Constitution declares the practice of untouchability as unconstitutional and forbids its practice in any form. Manual scavenging is considered a form of untouchability, and thus, is banned under the Constitution.
- The Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993: This law prohibits the employment of manual scavengers and the construction of dry latrines, which require human excreta to be removed manually. The Act makes it an offense to employ or engage someone for manual scavenging or construct dry latrines. It also provides for the rehabilitation of manual scavengers and the demolition of dry latrines.
- The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013: This law supersedes the 1993 Act and provides for a comprehensive framework for the elimination of manual scavenging. The Act defines manual scavengers and makes it illegal to employ or engage them in any work. It also mandates the identification and rehabilitation of manual scavengers and provides for penalties for violations.
- The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: This law protects members of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes from atrocities committed against them due to their caste identity. Manual scavenging is considered a caste-based atrocity under the Act and attracts stringent penalties.
Successful Urban Development Models
| Urban Development Model | Location | Key Features |
| Kudumbashree’s Model | Kerala | Empowers women and poverty-stricken families through entrepreneurship and community development. |
| Solid Waste Management in Okhla | Delhi | Utilizes a scientific approach to managing solid waste, including the generation of energy from waste. The project has received recognition for its effectiveness in reducing pollution and promoting sustainability. |
| Delhi Metro | Delhi | A rapid transit system that serves as an efficient and affordable means of transportation for residents and commuters. The project has significantly reduced traffic congestion and air pollution in the city. |
FAQs
1. What are some effects of urbanization?
- Effects of urbanization include increased economic opportunities, access to better healthcare and education, improved infrastructure, and enhanced cultural diversity. However, it can also lead to challenges like congestion, pollution, and housing shortages.
2. What are the key drivers of urbanization in India?
- The key drivers of urbanization in India include rural-to-urban migration in search of better economic prospects, industrialization, and a natural increase in urban population due to higher birth rates in urban areas.
3. How does urbanization impact the economy of a country?
- Urbanization often positively impacts the economy by creating job opportunities, promoting industrialization, and increasing productivity. It can lead to higher GDP and improved standards of living.
4. What are some common problems associated with urbanization?
- Common problems of urbanization include traffic congestion, inadequate housing, pollution, inadequate sanitation facilities, unequal distribution of resources, and social disparities.
5. How does urbanization affect the environment?
- Urbanization can have both positive and negative environmental impacts. It can lead to increased energy consumption, pollution, and habitat destruction, but it can also promote sustainable practices and efficient resource use in urban areas.
6. What role does urban planning play in managing urbanization?
- Urban planning is essential in managing urbanization effectively. It involves designing and organizing urban areas to optimize resource use, reduce congestion, and ensure the well-being of urban residents.
7. How can the negative consequences of urbanization be mitigated?
- To mitigate the negative consequences of urbanization, governments and urban planners can invest in sustainable infrastructure, affordable housing, public transportation, and environmental protection measures. Community involvement and equitable resource distribution are also vital.
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