After exploring the Indus Valley Civilization, we will now delve into the Vedic Period. While not as important as the previous topic from the UPSC’s perspective, it is still a significant period in Indian history. Our approach here will be to provide a general understanding of the Vedic Age, with a focus on key terms and concepts. To make it more engaging, we will use diagrams, maps, and tables wherever possible.
What is the Vedic Age?
The period between 1500 to 600 BCE is referred to as the Vedic Age. It is based on the primary source of the Vedic texts, composed by the Indo-Aryans, who spoke the Indo-European language.
How did the Aryans come to India?
- There are different theories on the arrival of Aryans in India, such as:
- The Aryan Migration Theory suggests that the Indo-Aryans migrated to India from Central Asia and Eastern Europe.
- The Indigenous Theory suggests that the Aryans were already present in India and were not foreign invaders.
- The Hybrid Theory proposes that the Aryans were a mixture of indigenous people and migrants.
| Name of the Theory | The postulate of the Theory | Proposed or Supported by |
| Aryan Migration Theory | Indo-Aryans migrated in a series of immigration from different regions. Evidence shows migration from Andronovo Culture (South Siberia) to the north of Hindu Kush and from there to India. Evidence of horses, fire cults, spoked wheels, and cremation support this view. | It is the most accepted and dominant theory till now. |
| Central Asian Theory | Aryans migrated from Central Asia and the Eurasian Steppe. The similarity between Vedic words and concepts with that of Avesta (Iranian Text). A recent study ‘The Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia’ (2018) of the Y chromosome supports this view. | Max Muller |
| European Theory | Europe is the homeland of Aryans. Based on the comparative linguistic study of Greek, Latin, German, and Sanskrit e.g. Sanskrit words ‘Pitri’ and ‘Matri’ are similar to the Latin ‘Pater’ and ‘Mater’. | Sir William Jones (1786) |
| Indian Theory | Aryans were indigenous to the subcontinent. The sacrificial rituals, and the geographical data, found from Rig Veda point to the Indian origin of Vedic Aryans. DNA analysis of Women Skelton found at Rakhigarhi refutes the Aryan migration theory. | Dr. Sampurnanand and A.C Das; Ganganath Jha and others |
| Arctic Region Theory | Northern Arctic is the homeland for Aryans as Vedas speak of 6 months of long days and long night. | Bal Gangadhar Tilak |
| Tibet Theory | Tibet is the original home of Aryans. | Swami Dayananda Saraswati |
For sake of Study, the Vedic Age has been divided into Rig Vedic (or Early Vedic Period between 1500 to 1000 BCE) and Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BCE).
Geography of the Vedic Age
| Features | Early Vedic Period | Later Vedic Period |
| Location | Early Aryans were based in and around the Indus and its tributaries (Western India). They called it Sapt-Sindavah (land of Seven Rivers). Saraswati (Ghaggar-Hakra Channel) was considered the holiest river. | Later Aryans moved to eastern areas (up to Bengal) with the help of fire and Iron tools. The core area was the Kuru-Panchala region (Indo-Gangetic divide and the upper Ganga Valley) Story of Videga Madhava (in Satapatha Brahmana): Videga Madhava moved east of River Gandak with the help of the fire god Agni. |
| Reference to Sea | No reference to the Sea in Rig Veda (the term ‘Samudra’ meant the collection of water and not the sea). | Acquired knowledge of Eastern and Western Sea and also of Narmada and Vindhyan Mountains. |
Political Structure of the Vedic Age
| Features | Early Vedic Period | Later Vedic Period |
| Form of Government | Monarchy but the office of the chief was not hereditary. Chief (Rajan) was called Gopati or Gopa (Protector of cows). The battle was called Gavisthis or Gavenshana or Goshu but no standing army. No doctrine of divinity is associated with the kingship. Important functionaries: Purohit (priest) Senani (leader of the army) Gramini (leader of a village) | Kingship became hereditary. King’s power increased and they performed various sacrifices to enhance his position: Rajasuya ( royal consecration and king conferred supreme power ). Vajapeya (chariot race to win against all kinsmen). Ashwamedha (control over the area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted). Kings still had no standing army. |
| Administrative units | It had a Patrilineal system. Kula (Family) with the head as Kulapa -> Vis or clan -> Jana or tribe (largest social unit). | Jana changed to Janapadas ( denoting territory) and further enlarged to Kingdoms like Mahajanapadas. ‘Rastra’ term appeared as wars were fought for territories now rather than cows. |
| Tribal Assemblies | Sabhas (exclusive body for elites). Samiti ( broad-based folk assembly, presided by the Rajan). Vidatha (Tribal assembly with diverse functions). Gana (Assembly or troop) | Sabhas and Samitis diminished in importance. Vidhatha disappeared. |
Society of Vedic Period
| Features | Early Vedic Period | Later Vedic Period |
| Division | The division is based on Clan and not Caste lines. Even the Rajans and the Purohits were part of the clan network. The occupation was not based on Birth. | Four-fold Division of Society based on Caste. Caste exogamy and rigid social hierarchy developed. The increasing cult of scarifies added to the power of the Brahmanas. |
| Varna System | Varna (color) was the basis of differentiation between Vedic and non-Vedic people (called ‘dasyus’ or ‘dasas’). Rig Vedic society cannot be therefore called egalitarian society as social stratification was based on the division of labor and gender. Rig Vedic people were familiar with slavery. | The Varna system of social distinction became more distinct. Varna’s system became based on birth and less on occupation. Varna-ashrama-dharma society: Showed four stages of life. |
| Social mobility | People could change their professions and the absence of a strict social hierarchy. | Restricted social mobility. |
| Position of Women | Despite patriarchal society, women had important positions, were educated, and had access to the assembly. They had the choice to choose their husband. No incidence of Sati, or Purdah. | Their position in society: In the family, women were confined to household chores and subordinate positions. Women were not permitted to attend public assemblies like Sabhas and Samitis. Instances of Sati and Purdah. Despite these, there are a great examples of women scholars in this period such as Gargi, Maitreyi, and Katyayani. |
| Marriage | Early Vedic people practised usually Monogamous marriage but Polygyny and Polyandry also existed. Levirate (marrying the husband’s younger brother on the death of husband) also existed. Niyoga marriage existed( it was a variant of widow remarriage in which childless widow was temporarily married to the husband’s brother to produce children ) | Child marriages became common. Gotras were institutionalized. Marriage between persons of the same gotra was forbidden. Mention of Chandrayana Penance for men marrying women of the same gotra. |
The Economy of the Vedic Period
| Features | Early Vedic Period | Later Vedic Period |
| Economy | Pastoral economy: Cattle rearing was the main occupation. The measure of wealth was cattle and a wealthy man was called Gomat. | Agricultural economy: Agriculture has become the chief means of livelihood. |
| Trade and Commerce | Meager evidence of Trade and commerce. No concept of private property. Unite of currency was Nishka. | Although, the land was still communally owned the private property began to be recognized and the head of household (Grahpati) owned the land. The barter system was still prevalent but ‘Niskha’ was used as a unit of value (not as typical currency). Shresthins (guild ) was the organization of merchants, which became prominent. |
| Revenue System | No regular revenue system. Voluntary tribute (Bali) and bounty won in a battle were the sources of income. Prestations: Gifts exchanged on a group level were important for the economy of Rig Vedic society e.g. exchange of courtesies, weapons, cattle, etc. | Collection of taxes and tribute was made mandatory and was done by Sangrihitri. Vaishyas were the only tribute-paying community in later Vedic times. |
| Crafts | Chariot-making, Carpentry, Tanning, etc. They were familiar with copper but didn’t use Iron. It had Ochre Coloured Pottery. | Started to use Iron (called Krishna Ayas/ Shyama Ayas). They knew of Tin, lead, silver, gold, bronze, and Copper. Later Vedic culture is also called PGW (Painted Grey ware) – Iron Phase culture as this type of pottery was used during this phase. |
| Agriculture | Shifting type of agriculture. Barley (yava) was the main grain. Used wooden plough (Phala, langala and ‘sira’). | Settled agriculture had started and this led to the beginning of Urbanism (‘Nagar’ mentioned in Taittiriya Aranyaka). Mixed farming (cultivation along with herding) was one of the prime occupations. Rice (Vrihi) and Wheat (Godhuma) was the staple diet. |
The Religion of the Vedic Period
| Features | Early Vedic Period | Later Vedic Period |
| Nature of Worship | There was no temple or idol worship. They practiced primitive animism (worshipped forces of nature such as wind, rain, water, etc.). | Idolatry became prominent. Sacrifices became more elaborate and important. Brahmans gained in importance and they maintained their supremacy. They performed yajnas such as Ashvamedha, Vajapeya, etc. to establish their authority over the chiefs and their territory |
| Male Gods | Indra (most important): God of thunder/rain. Agni: God of fire. Varuna: God of water. Soma: God of plants. Yama: God of death. Pushan: God of jungle paths, herdsmen, and cattle. Vishnu: Benevolent god. Marutas: god of storm. Ashvins: twin god of war and fertility. | Indra and Agni lost importance and Prajapati (god of creation) emerged supreme. Vishnu, Rudra (previously a minor god) became prominent. Division in the class of deities appeared e.g. Pushan (god of cattle) became the god of Shudras. |
| Female God | Savitri: Solar deity. Aditi: Goddess of eternity. Prithvi: Earth Goddess. Nirrti: Goddess of death. Usha: Goddess of dawn. |  |
| Demi-gods | Gandharvas (divine musicians). Apsaras (Mistress of God). Vishwadevas (Intermediate Deities). Aryaman (Guardian of compacts and marriages). |
Important Terms Used in the Vedic Period
| Terms used in the Rig Vedic age | Meaning | Terms | Sources |
| Godhuli | Time | Samsara ( transmigration of Soul) | Brahadarankya Upanishad |
| Gavyuti | Distance | Four ashrams | Jabala Upanishad |
| Gotra | Kinship | Satyamev Jayate | Mandukya Upanishad |
| Gana | Lineage | Fou-rfold Varna system | Rig Veda (10th Mandala) |
| Grama | Village | Trimurti God | Maitrayani Upanishad |
| Gauri | Buffalo | Origin of Universe | Rig Veda (10th Mandala) |
| Gojit | Winner of Cow or a Hero | Sabha and Samiti as twin daughters of Prajapati | Atharva Veda |
| Goghna | Guest fed on cattle |
FAQs:
Q1: What was the education system like during the Vedic Age?
A: During the Vedic Age, education was primarily oral and centered around the transmission of knowledge through recitation and memorization of sacred texts known as the Vedas.
Q2: Were there formal schools during the Vedic Age?
A: No, formal schools as we know them today did not exist in the Vedic Age. Education was typically imparted within the family or by gurus (teachers) in a guru-shishya (teacher-student) tradition.
Q3: What is the difference between the Early Vedic Age and the Later Vedic Age?
A: The Early Vedic Age (1500 BCE – 1000 BCE) is associated with the composition of the Rigveda, while the Later Vedic Age (1000 BCE – 600 BCE) saw the composition of the other Vedas and a shift from a pastoral economy to an agrarian one.
Q4: How did society change between the Early and Later Vedic Ages?
A: During the Early Vedic Age, society was largely pastoral and tribal, whereas the Later Vedic Age saw the emergence of settled agricultural communities and the development of kingdoms.
Q5. What was the social structure like during the Vedic Age?
A: Vedic society was divided into four main varnas or social classes: Brahmins (priests and scholars), Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (merchants and farmers), and Shudras (laborers and servants).
Q6: Were there any restrictions or mobility within the Vedic social classes?
A: Social mobility was limited during the Vedic Age. People were born into their varnas, and there were rules and duties associated with each varna. However, there was some flexibility over time.
Q7: Is there a map that shows the geographical extent of the Vedic Age?
A: There are maps available that depict the geographical region where the Vedic civilization thrived. These maps often show the Indo-Gangetic plain in ancient India.
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