The Early Medieval Period, spanning roughly from the 5th to the 10th century CE, was a pivotal era in world history marked by significant political, cultural, and social changes. During this time, various major dynasties rose to prominence in different regions, leaving a lasting impact on the course of history. These dynasties played a crucial role in shaping the socio-political landscape and cultural developments of their respective territories, influencing the course of events for centuries to come. In this exploration, we will delve into some of the most significant major dynasties of the Early Medieval Period, highlighting their contributions and legacies that continue to resonate in the modern world.
1. The Pratiharas
Sources
- Prithviraj Raso written by Chandbad Rai is the first major source for Rajput history.
- According to this book, Rajputs originated from a fire sacrifice performed at Mt.Abu.
- Prithviraj Raso is considered the one of first books in the Hindi language.
- Colonel James Todd wrote “Annals of Rajputana” or “Rajasthan Kathavali”.
- According to James Todd, Rajputs were descendants of HUNs.
- Somadeva Suri’s “Kathasaritha Sagara” also gives details of Rajputs.
- Rashtrakuta poet Pampa also mentions Gujarat in his book.
Political History
- Rajputs ruled Rajasthan and Gujarat region.
- They claimed their origin from Laxman.
- Prathiharas acted as bulwarks against Islamic invaders.
- Nagabhatta- 1 was the most famous and prominent king, he came into conflict with Rashtrakuta king Dhruva (tripartite warfare for Kannauj).
- Nagabhtta was followed by Vatsaraja.
- Vatsaraja defeated Dharmapala of the Pala dynasty but lost to Dhruv of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
- Mihirbhoj was the greatest among Prathiharas, he defeated Narayanpala of Pala. He ruled for a long time, 46 years.
- Mihirbhoj was mentioned by Arab travelers. Abu Suleman called him King Juzr, and al-Masudi called him King Baura.
- The last king Rajyapala was defeated by Krishna 3 of Rashtrakuta and Ghazni Mohammed.
- From 1000 AD onwards, Prathiharas became weak due to internal conflicts and the rise in feudal lords.
- This led to the fragmentation of Rajputs.
Architecture
- There are notable examples of architecture from the Gurjara-Pratihara era, including sculptures and carved panels.
- They started the Maru-Gujara style of architecture.
- Examples:
- Bateshwar Hindu Temples Complex, located near Gwalior (MP) Dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, and Shakti.
- Baroli temple complex.
Rajput Kingdoms
- Rajputs formed various kingdoms, and some of them are listed below:
- Chauhan Dynasty: They ruled the region of Ajmer and Delhi.
- Sisodia Dynasty: They ruled the region of Mewar (Udaipur).
- Kachwaha Dynasty: They ruled the region of Jaipur and Amber.
- Rathore Dynasty: They ruled the region of Marwar (Jodhpur).
- Hada Dynasty: They ruled the region of Kota.
- Shekhawat Dynasty: They ruled the region of Sikar.
- Bhatti Dynasty: They ruled the region of Jaisalmer.
Sources:
- Prithvirajraso written by Chandbadrai is the first major source for Rajput history.
- According to this book, Rajputs originated from a fire sacrifice performed at Mt.Abu.
- Prithviraj Raso is considered the one of first books in the Hindi language.
- Colonel James Todd wrote “Annals of Rajputana” or “Rajasthan Kathavali”.
- According to James Todd, Rajputs were descendants of HUNs.
- Somadeva Suri’s “Kathasaritha Sagara” also gives details of Rajputs.
- Rashtrakuta poet Pampa also mentions about Gujarat in his book.
Political History:
- Rajputs ruled Rajasthan and Gujarat region.
- They claimed their origin from Laxman.
- Prathiharas acted as bulwarks against Islamic invaders.
- Nagabhatta- 1 was the most famous and prominent king, he came into conflict with Rashtrakuta king Dhruva (tripartite warfare for Kannauj).
- Nagabhtta was followed by Vatsaraja.
- Vatsaraja defeated Dharmapala of the Pala dynasty but lost to Dhruv of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
- Mihirbhoj was the greatest among Prathiharas, he defeated Narayanpala of Pala. He ruled for a long time, 46 years.
- Mihirbhoj was mentioned by Arab travelers. Abu Suleman called him King Juzr, and al-Masudi called him King Baura.
- The last king Rajyapala was defeated by Krishna 3 of Rashtrakuta and Ghazni Mohammed.
- From 1000 AD onwards, Prathiharas became weak due to internal conflicts and the rise in feudal lords.
- This led to the fragmentation of Rajputs.
Architecture:
- There are notable examples of architecture from the Gurjara-Pratihara era, including sculptures and carved panels.
- They started the Maru-Gujara style of architecture.
- Examples:
- Bateshwar Hindu Temples Complex, located near Gwalior (MP) Dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, and Shakti.
- Baroli temple complex.
Rajput Kingdoms:
- Rajputs formed various kingdoms, and some of them are listed below:
- Chauhan Dynasty: They ruled the region of Ajmer and Delhi.
- Sisodia Dynasty: They ruled the region of Mewar (Udaipur).
- Kachwaha Dynasty: They ruled the region of Jaipur and Amber.
- Rathore Dynasty: They ruled the region of Marwar (Jodhpur).
- Hada Dynasty: They ruled the region of Kota.
- Shekhawat Dynasty: They ruled the region of Sikar.
- Bhatti Dynasty: They ruled the region of Jaisalmer.
2. The Palas (750-1162 AD)
Political History
- Pala dynasty ruled from 8th to 12th century CE in Bihar and Bengal.
- Gauda ruler Sashanka was the first prominent king of ancient Bengal, after his fall, there was no central authority leading to recurring wars.
- In 750 CE, a group of chiefs decided on Gopala I as their ruler, succeeded by his son Dharmapala.
- Dharmapala established Vikramashila and Jagaddella, patronized Harisbhadra, a Buddhist writer, and controlled Kanyakubja with the title uttarapatha swamin (master of northern India).
- Devapala extended Pala control eastwards up to Kamarupa (Assam) and defeated Amoghavarsha, the Rashtrakuta ruler.
- Other important rulers included Vigramapala, Rajyapala, Gopala III, and Vigramapala II, and the last ruler Madanapala was expelled by Vijayasena of the Sena dynasty.
Language
Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali
Religion
Great patrons of Mahayana Buddhism, with Haribhadra as the spiritual preceptor of Dharmapala.
Architecture
- Various mahaviharas, Stupas, chaityas, temples, and forts were constructed.
- First two hundred years were dominated by Buddhist art, last two hundred years by Hindu art.
- Notable mahaviharas include Nalanda, Vikramashila, Somapura, Traikutaka, Devikota, Pandita, and Jagaddala Vihara.
- Somapura Mahavihara at Paharpur, a creation of Dharmapala, is one of the largest Buddhist viharas in the Indian subcontinent and influenced the architecture of countries like Myanmar and Indonesia.
- Manuscripts on palm leaves relating to Buddhist themes were written and illustrated with images of Buddhist deities, and workshops for casting bronze images were present.
Painting
- The earliest examples of miniature painting in India exist in the form of illustrations to religious texts on Buddhism under the Palas of eastern India.
- Two forms of painting: manuscripts and wall painting.
- Manuscripts depicted scenes of the life of Buddha and several gods and goddesses of Mahayana sects, with the visible impact of tantricism.
- Red, blue, black, and white colors used as primary colors.
- Pala painting is characterized by sinuous lines, delicate and nervous lines, sensuous elegance, linear and decorative accents, and subdued tones of color.
- Wall paintings found in Saradh and Sarai in the Nalanda district, depict flowers of geometric shapes, images of animals, and humans.
Sculpture
- Gupta’s tradition of sculptural art attained a new height under the patronage of Pala rulers, incorporating local characteristics in Bengal under the Palas and continuing up to the end of the 12th century.
- Sculptures of stones and bronze were constructed in large numbers, mostly in the monastic sites of Nalanda and Bodh Gaya.
- Inspiration was drawn from Buddhism, with sculptures of gods and goddesses of Hindu Dharma like Surya, Vishnu, Ganesh, etc.
- The frontal parts of the body are highly detailed and decorated, with slim and graceful figures, elaborate jewelry, and conventional decoration.
- Free-flowing movement and similar sizes in almost all figures carved out of grayish or white spotted sandstone.
- Bronze casting is an important feature of Pala sculptures.
Reasons for Sudden Ending
- Pala art ended suddenly after the destruction of Buddhist monasteries by Muslim invaders in the first half of the 13th century.
- Some of the monks and artists escaped and fled to Nepal, which helped reinforce the existing art traditions there.
- Ramapala was the last strong Pala ruler. After his death, a rebellion broke out in Kamarupa during his son Kumarapala’s reign. So due to rebellions art was not focused much.
3. Rashtrakutas
Rashtrakuta Dynasty: Political and Cultural History
Political History
- Rashtrakutas were initially feudatories of the Western Chalukyas of Vatapi, ruling from Manyakheta in Karnataka.
- Dhantidurga founded the dynasty by defeating the Chalukyas of Badami.
- Krishna 1 succeeded Dhantidurga and built the Kailasa temple in Ellora, defeating the Gangas of Mysore.
- Dhruva was the greatest ruler in the Rashtrakuta dynasty; during his reign, the Rashtrakuta power reached its zenith.
- Govinda 3 succeeded Dhruva and extended the empire from the Himalayas in the north to Kanyakumari in the south and Saurashtra in the west to West Bengal in the east.
- Amoghavarsha succeeded Govinda 3 and was a patron of literature; he constructed Manyakheta city and made it his capital.
- Krishna 3 was the last great ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty; his successors were too weak to save the kingdom from decline.
Religion
- Rashtrakuta rulers were religiously tolerant.
- Worship of Shiva and Vishnu was popular, and the famous rock-cut Shiva temple at Ellora was built by Krishna 1.
- Jainism was patronized by later rulers like Amoghavarsha.
- Buddhism had declined, and its only important center was at Kanheri.
Literature
- The Rashtrakutas were great patrons of learning, and Kannada and Sanskrit literature made great progress during their reign.
- The Kannada language received great patronage and a golden age in this era.
- The three gems of ancient Kannada literature – Pampa, Ranna, and Ponna – were patronized by Rashtrakuta kings.
- Amoghvarsha wrote Kavirajamarga, the first book on poetics in Kannada.
- Mahaveeracharya, a mathematician, wrote Ganithasarasangraha in Sanskrit.
- Halayudha wrote Kavirahasya in Sanskrit.
Art and Architecture
- The Rashtrakutas made splendid contributions to Indian art.
- They built structural temples, cave temples, and Basadis.
- Ellora, Ajanta, and Elephanta are the centers of their art.
- The Kailasa Temple was built by the 8th-century Rashtrakuta King Krishna 1 between the years 756 and 773 AD.
- It is a particularly notable cave temple in India due to its size, architecture, and having been entirely carved out of a single rock.
- It has a three-tiered shikhara or tower and is modeled along similar lines to other Hindu temples with a gateway, an assembly hall, a multi-story main temple surrounded by numerous shrines laid out according to the square principle, an integrated space for circumambulation, a garbha-grihya (sanctum sanctorum) wherein resides the linga-yoni, and a spire-shaped like Mount Kailash – all carved from one rock.
- Other shrines carved from the same rock are dedicated to Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati, the ten avatars of Vishnu, Vedic gods and goddesses including Indra, Agni, Vayu, Surya, and Usha, as well as non-Vedic deities like Ganesha, Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati), Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu), Annapurna, Durga, and others.
Kailasa Temple
- Built by the 8th century Rashtrakuta King Krishna I between 756 and 773 AD.
- Notable for its size, architecture, and being carved out of a single rock.
- Modeled after other Hindu temples with a gateway, assembly hall, multi-story main temple, shrines according to the square principle, space for circumambulation, garbha-grihya, and spire-shaped like Mount Kailash.
- Other shrines carved from the same rock are dedicated to various deities including Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati, Vishnu’s ten avatars, Vedic gods and goddesses, and non-Vedic deities like Ganesha and Durga.
- Has a three-tiered sikhara resembling the sikhara of the Mamallapuram rathas.
- The Interior includes a pillared hall with sixteen square pillars.
- Sculptures include Goddess Durga slaying the Buffalo demon, Ravana attempting to lift Mount Kailasa, and scenes from the Ramayana.
- The general characteristics of the Kailasa temple are more Dravidian.
Dasavathara Cave
- Located in Cave 15 at Ellora.
- Two-story temple with Shiva Nataraja and a Shiva emerging from Lingam while Vishnu and Brahma pay homage.
- Similar layout to Buddhist caves with non-Buddhist features like a Nrtya Mandapa at its entrance.
- Open court with a free-standing monolithic mandapa at the middle and a two-storeyed excavated temple at the rear.
- Large sculptural panels between wall columns on the upper floor depicting various themes including the ten avatars of Vishnu.
- The finest relief depicts the death of Hiranyakashipu where Vishnu in man-lion form emerges from a pillar.
- Other reliefs include Gangadhara, the marriage of Shiva and Parvati, Tripurantika of Shakti tradition, Markendeya, Garuda, Nandi in mandapa, and others.
- Panels arranged in dyads display cooperative but antagonistic energy with mutuality of power transference.
Elephanta Cave
- Located on an island 6 miles from Mumbai.
- Has 7 caves, named after a large elephant by the Portuguese.
- The sculptural art of Rashtrakutas reached its zenith in this place.
- Sculptures include Nataraja, Sadashiva, Ardhanarishvara, Maheshamurti, and Trimurthi representing the three aspects of Shiva as creator, preserver, and destroyer.
- UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The Senas (11th to 12th Century)
Sources:
- The Deopara Prashasti, commissioned by Lakshmana Sena, describe the Senas as migrant Brahmaksatriyas from Karnataka.
- Copper plates found in Adilpur.
Political History:
- The Senas ruled from Bengal during the 11th and 12th centuries.
- The rulers of the Sena Dynasty traced their origin to the south Indian region of Karnataka.
- Vijayasena expelled Madanpala (last ruler of Pala dynasty) and started Sena dynasty rule. He was the real founder of Sena kingdom.
- Ballala Sena (1160-1178) introduced the social reforms in Bengal known as Kulinism.
- Ballalsena was succeeded by Lakshamanasena.
- Lakshmana Sena was the greatest of this dynasty.
- Towards the close of his reign, he became weak, and there were signs of disintegration within his kingdom.
- Muhammad Bhaktiyar Khalji gave the final blow to the Sena kingdom (1204 AD).
Religion:
- The rule of the Senas in Bengal is usually connected with the emergence of orthodox Hinduism in a Hindu-Buddhist society that had long enjoyed the peaceful coexistence of the two religions resulting in an atmosphere of amalgam of the two.
- The onslaught on the Buddhists in Bengal is believed to have started in this period, resulting in large-scale Buddhist migration to the neighboring countries.
- Buddhism declined in India after Sena’s rule.
- Many Buddhist universities were plundered by Bhaktiyar Khalji (Vikaramshila, Odantapuri, Nalanda).
Literature:
- The Sena rulers were also great patrons of literature.
- During the Pala dynasty and the Sena dynasty, major growth in Bengali was witnessed.
- The Sena period also witnessed the development of Sanskrit literature.
- Lakshmanasena patronized Pancharatnas in his court: Jayadeva, Sarana, Umapathi, Dhoyi, Govardhana.
- Jayadeva has composed the romantic devotional songs known as His famous book was Gita Govindam.
- Jayadeva was the founder of the Radha Krishna cult.
- Dhoyi has written Pavandutam.
Architecture:
- The architectural style in the Sena dynasty is a continuation of the style of PALAS.
- No evident change in architectural form can be seen.
- Senas are famous for building Hindu temples and monasteries.
- Dhakeshwari temple in Dhaka, Bangladesh, is an example of temples built during the Sena period.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Q: What is the Early Medieval Period in India?
A: The early medieval period in India, also known as the post-classical period, refers to the historical era between the end of the ancient period (c. 600 CE) and the beginning of the medieval period (c. 1200 CE). It was marked by the emergence of regional kingdoms, socio-cultural developments, and the influence of Buddhism, Jainism, and later, Islam.
Q: What Is the Timeline of the Early Medieval Period in India?
A: The timeline of the early medieval period in India typically spans from around 600 CE to 1200 CE. It begins with the decline of the Gupta Empire and continues through the establishment of various regional kingdoms, such as the Cholas, Pallavas, Rashtrakutas, and the Pala Empire. This era laid the foundation for the diverse cultural landscape of medieval India.
Q: What Are Some Notable Monuments from the Early Medieval Period in India?
A: Some prominent monuments from the early medieval period in India include the Shore Temple in Mahabalipuram, the Ellora and Ajanta Caves, the Badami Chalukya rock-cut temples, and the Konark Sun Temple. These monuments reflect the architectural and artistic achievements of the time and often display a blend of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain influences.
Q: What Were the Key Characteristics of the Early Medieval Period?
A: The early medieval period was characterized by the fragmentation of political power, with various regional dynasties and kingdoms emerging. It witnessed the patronage of art, literature, and philosophy, as well as the spread of Buddhism and Jainism. This period also saw the beginning of Islamic influence through trade and invasions in some parts of India.
Q: How Does the Early Medieval Period Relate to the Early Middle Ages in Europe?
A: The early medieval period in India is roughly contemporaneous with the early middle ages in Europe. Both periods share similarities, such as the decentralization of political authority and the emergence of regional kingdoms. However, they are distinct in terms of cultural, religious, and historical developments due to the unique contexts of India and Europe during this time. The early middle ages in Europe typically covers the period from the 5th to the 10th century CE.
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