Indian history is a vast tapestry woven with threads of ancient civilizations, empires, and cultural evolution. The Subject Wise Prelims examination comprehensively explores this rich historical landscape.

• Ancient India:
  • Indus Valley Civilization: Urban planning and trade networks.
  • Vedic Period: Rig Veda, societal structure, and early governance.
• Maurya and Gupta Empires:
  • Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka’s reign: Administration and edicts.
  • Gupta Golden Age: Achievements in science, arts, and literature.
• Medieval India:
  • Delhi Sultanate: Slave dynasty to the Tughlaqs.
  • Mughal Empire: Akbar’s policies, artistic contributions.
• Colonial Era:
  • Arrival of Europeans: Portuguese, Dutch, and British.
  • Impact of British rule: Economic policies and social changes.
• Modern India:
  • First War of Independence 1857: Causes and consequences.
  • Independence movement: Leaders, movements, and events.
  • Post-independence challenges: Partition, integration of princely states.

A thorough understanding of these periods equips aspirants with the necessary historical insights for the Subject Wise Prelims examination.

Ancient History

Literary and Cultural Sources:

• Ancient Indian history unfolds through a diverse array of sources, including literature, writings, sculpture, paintings, architecture, and various cultural elements.

Indus Valley Civilization:

• The Indus Valley Civilization’s essence is vividly portrayed in excavation sites such as Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Lothal, showcasing the sophistication of this ancient society.

Rigvedic Civilization:

• The Rigvedic era finds its reflection in revered texts like the Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads, providing insights into the spiritual and philosophical dimensions of the time.

Mauryan Age:

• The Mauryan age is rich in sources, including the Arthashastra, Mudrakshasha, punch-marked coins, and Ashoka’s Pillar Inscriptions, contributing to a comprehensive study of this historical period.

Gupta Age – The Golden Era:

• Considered the golden age of Ancient India, the Gupta period saw the flourishing of great poets, writers, mathematicians, and astrologers like Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira. Epics such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata from this era provide profound insights into Ancient India.

Sohgaurn Copper Inscription:

• A significant Mauryan record, the Sohgaurn copper inscription, vividly depicts famine relief efforts. Crafted in Prakrit using the Brahmi Script, it serves as a historical artifact shedding light on societal challenges and responses.
• The significance of these historical sources is underscored by their inclusion in UPSC exams, emphasizing their importance in understanding Ancient Indian history.

UPSC 2019

Q. In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is ‘Ranyo Ashoka’ (King Ashoka) mentioned along with the stone portrait of Ashoka?

1. Kanganahalli

2. Sanchi

3. Shahbazgarhi

4. Sohgaura

Answer: Kanganahalli

Kanganahalli

• Kanaganahalli is located near Sannati, Karnataka.
• In this sculptural depiction, the emperor with his queen and attendants are carved on a slab, with Ranyo Asoka (Raja Asoka) mentioned along with the stone portrait of Ashoka.
• It is the first-ever sculpture of Asoka with his name inscribed.

Shahbazgarhi

• Shahbazgarhi in Pakistan is known for rock edicts of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka.
• Shahbazgarhi rock edicts are cut into the surface of two large boulders on the side of a small rocky outcrop in the Valley of Peshawar.
• Sanchi stupa at Madhya Pradesh is one of the earliest Buddhist monuments in India built by Emperor Ashoka.

Sohgaura

•  Sohgaura is a copper plate inscription written in Prakrit in the Bramhi script.
•  It was discovered in Sohgaura, a village in Gorakhpur district, Uttar Pradesh.

Perspectives from Foreign Travelers:

• Foreign travelers such as Fa-Hein, Hiuen Tsang, Megasthenes, through their writings, offer additional perspectives on the vibrant life of Ancient India, enriching our understanding of this diverse civilization.

In the mosaic of Ancient Indian history, these varied sources, presented in bullet points, converge to provide a holistic narrative, allowing us to delve into the intricacies of a bygone era.

The Pre-Historic Age

Palaeolithic Age (Unknown times to 9000 BC):

• Coined by Archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865.

Mesolithic Age (9000 BC to 4000 BC):

• Bagor in Rajasthan, excavated by VN Mishra, stands as India’s largest Mesolithic site.
• Notable Mesolithic sites include Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Pratapgarh, and Mirzapur, renowned for their captivating cave paintings.

Neolithic Age (4000 BC to 2000 BC):

• Mehrgarh marks the pioneering transition from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic phase.
• Neolithic practices, including jhum cultivation, are evident in the Belan Valley of Uttar Pradesh, with key sites like Koldihwa, Mahagara, and Chopani Mando.

Chalcolithic Age:

• The Chalcolithic age, spanning from 2800 to 700 BC, features distinctive black and red pottery, a hallmark of this cultural epoch, persisting until the second century BC.

Indus Valley Civilisation

The Indus Valley Civilization:

• Originating in North India, it marked the inception of major civilizations in South Asia.

Harappan Civilization:

• Encompassed a triangular area of 1,299,600 square meters.
• Predates the Chalcolithic culture.

Dholavira:

• Features a sophisticated water management system.
• Involves intricate channels and reservoirs, representing the earliest of its kind globally.
• Chanhudaro (Sind) – Termed the Lancashire of India.
• It is the only Indus city lacking a Citadel.
• Boasts the largest number of copper implements among Indus sites.

UPSC  2021

Q. Which one of the following ancient towns is well known for its elaborate system of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channelizing water into connected reservoirs?

1. Dholavira

2. Kalibangan

3. Rakhigarhi

4. Ropar

Answer : Dholavira

• The site was in news quite recently and it is expected that you know this. Dholavira is located on Kadir island in the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat.
• The city had an impressive and unique water harvesting and management System.
• It can be noted that this area receives less than 160 cm of rain every year and is very prone to droughts.
• A sophisticated water management system demonstrates the ingenuity of the Dholavira people in their struggle to survive and thrive in a harsh environment.
• Underground structures have revealed an intricate system of interconnected water reservoirs, check dams, bunds for diverting the water of Manhar river to a reservoir.
• At the rest of the sites mentioned in the options, such elaborate water harvesting structures have not been found.

Rakhigarhi:

• Located in Hisar, Haryana, termed as the provincial capital of the Harappan civilization.

Surkotada:

• Citadel and Lower town fortified with stone walls.
• Provides the earliest remains of horse bones.

Kot Diji:

• Pre-Harappan fortified settlement.
• Boasts the highest number of stone implements and stone arrowheads.

Desalpur:

• The township fortified with a wall constructed of stones with mud filling.
• Harappan culture known for Town Planning.
• The Great Bath in Mohenjo Daro stands as a crucial public space.

UPSC 2019 

Q. Which one of the following is not a Harappan site?

1. Chanhudaro

2. Kot Diji

3. Sohgaura

4. Desalpur

Answer : Sohgaura

Sohgaura

• It is not a Harappan site.
• It is an Ashokan era copper plate inscription written in Prakrit in the Brahmi script.
• Major findings in Kot Diji (Pakistan) of Harappan site are a tar, statues of bull and mother goddess.
• Major findings in Chanhudaro (Pakistan) of Harappan site are the footprint of a dog chasing a cat, Bead makers shop, and Cart with a seated driver.
• Major findings in Desalpur (Gujarat) of Harappan site are pottery ware with lines of bluish-green pigment, Terracotta seals etc.

Indus Valley Civilization:

• A secular civilization with no trace of theocratic or organized religion.
• Artefact evidence indicates the production of cotton textiles during the Harappan period.

UPSC 2011

Q. Regarding the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements:

1. It was predominantly a secular civilization and the religious element, though present, did not dominate the scene.

2. During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles in India.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. 1 only

2. 2 only

3. Both 1 and 2

4. Neither 1 nor 2

Answer:  Both 1 and 3

Harappan culture is divided into various phases:

• Early Harappan (3000-2600 BCE)
• Mature Harappan (2600-1900 BCE)
• Late Harappan (1900-1700 BCE)
• The Indus valley Civilisation and the contemporary cultures covered nearly 1.5 million sq. km area in India and Pakistan.
• The Harappan civilization belongs to the Bronze Age civilization and Harappans knew how to make copper bronze tools.
• People of Indus valley Civilisation worshipped trees and animals such as bull, buffalo and tiger. Since religion did not dominate the scene. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
• In 1929, archaeologists recovered fragments of cotton textiles at Mohenjo-Daro.
• Cottonseeds founds at nearby Mehrgarh have been dated to 5000 BCE. Hence, statement 2 is correct.

The Vedic Age

Vedic Information Sources:

• Primary information source for early Vedic people is the Rigveda.
• The National Motto of India, “Satyameva Jayate,” from Mundaka Upanishad.

UPSC 2014

Q. The national motto of India, ‘Satyameva Jayate’ inscribed below the Emblem of India is taken from

1. Katha Upanishad
2. Chandogya Upanishad
3. Aitareya Upanishad
4. Mundaka Upanishad

Answer: Mundaka Upanishad

• The national motto of India, ‘Satyameva Jayate’ inscribed below the Emblem of India is taken from Mundaka Upanishad.This motto means “Truth Alone Triumphs”. It is written in Devanagari script.
• Mundaka Upanishad is listed as number 5 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads of Hinduism. This Upanishad is a poetic verse style Upanishad, with 64 verses, written in the form of mantras.
• Katha Upanishad is listed as number 3 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads.
• It is embedded in the last short eight sections of the Katha school of the Krishna Yajurveda.
• Chandogya Upanishad is a Sanskrit text embedded in the Chandogya Brahmana of the Sama Veda of Hinduism. It is one of the oldest Upanishads.
• It is listed as number 9 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads.
• Aitareya Upanishad comprises the fourth, fifth and sixth chapters of the second book of Aitareya Aranyaka.

Aryans in Later Vedic Age:

• Expansion into Western Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and up to the borders of Bengal.
• Association with Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture (1100-600 BC).

Rigvedic Society:

• Semi-nomadic tribal society with a pastoral economy.
• Kula (family) forms the basis of both social and political organization.
• Sabha, the exclusive body for elites, and Samiti, the house of commons, known as the twin daughters of Prajapati. Vidhata considered the oldest.
• The Bharata ruling clan, supported by priest Vashistha, opposed by a group of ten chiefs.
• Indra, the greatest God for Aryan warriors, with about one-fourth of total hymns (250 hymns) dedicated to him.

Rigvedic Deities:

• Agni, the second-most important, with 200 Rigvedic hymns devoted to him, also known as the Fire God.
• Varuna considered ethically the highest of all Rigvedic Gods.

UPSC 2012

Q. The religion of early Vedic Aryans was primarily of

1. Bhakti
2. image worship and Yajnas
3. worship of nature and Yajnas
4. worship of nature and Bhakti

Answer: worship of nature and Yajnas

• The Vedic Age was between 1500 BC and 600 BC.
• They worshipped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain, thunder, etc in form of deities.
• Major deities were-

1.  Indra – Thunder
2.  Prithvi – Earth
3.  Agni – Fire
4.  Varuna – Rain
5.  Vayu – Wind

•  Ushas and Aditi were female deities.
•  Yajnas are typically performed by four priests of the Vedic priesthood: the hota, the adhvaryu, the udgata and the Brahma. Hence option 3 is correct.

Mimamsa System of Philosophy:

• Liberation achievable through Karma.

UPSC 1995

Q. According to Mimamsa system of philosophy, liberation is possible by means by

(a) jnana

(b) bhakti

(c) yoga

(d) karma

Solution

The correct option is D i.e karma

Social Practices in Rigvedic Period:

• Girls free to choose life partners, no child marriage, Sati system, or veil system.
• Widows free to remarry brothers of late husbands.
• Monogamy generally followed, with polygamy also in practice.
• The Aitareya Brahmana emphasizes daughters as a source of misery and sons as protectors of the family.
• Maitrayani Samhita identifies three evils: liquor, dice, and women.

Vedic Texts:

• Rigveda contains 1028 hymns, divided into 10 Mandalas, written between 1500-1000 BC.
• Samaveda, in lyrical form, has 1549 and 1810 verses.
• Yajurveda, in prose, divided into Shukla and Krishna, prescribes rituals, primarily a guide for Adhvaryu priests.
• Atharvaveda, the book of magical formulae, contains charms and spells in verse to ward off evils and diseases.

Q. Which one of the following four Vedas contains an account of magical charms and spells?

1. Yajur Veda

2. Sama Veda

3. Rig Veda

4. Atharva Veda

Answer: Atharva Veda

• The “Atharva Veda” is an ancient Hindu scripture and is one of the four Vedas commonly known as the fourth Veda. It is a Vedic-era collection of spells, prayers, charms, and hymns.
• The Veda of the Atharvan is the Atharva Veda.
• Atharvan denotes directions and mantras especially in connection to ward off evil and hardship and also contains philosophical thoughts.
• “Atharvan” originally means ‘priest’ and the Mantras in the Atharva Veda-Samhita were brought to light by Rishi Atharva.

The Rise of Jainism and Buddhism

Vardhaman Mahavira and Gautama Buddha:

• Disputed the authority of Vedas.
• Jainism boasts 24 Tirthankaras, pivotal to the origin and development of Jaina religion and philosophy.

Rishabhadeva – The First Jain Tirthankara:

• Also known as Adinath.  

23rd Tirthankara Parsvanath:

• Son of King Asvasena of Varanasi.
• Passed away at the age of 100 at Sammet Shikhar (Parsvanath hill), Giridih, Jharkhand.

Teachings of Parsvanath:

• Advocated four main principles: Saly (truth), Ahimsa (non-violence), Asteya (non-stealing), and Aparigraha (non-accumulation).
• A critic of the Vedas and Vedic Gods.

Vardhaman Mahavira – The 24th Tirthankara:

• Born in 540 BC in a village near Vaishal, identified with Basarh in the district of Muzaffarpur (Bihar).
• Mahavira emphasized the Triratnas—Samyak Darshan, Samyak Gyan, and Samyak Acharan—and embraced asceticism at 30. 
• The Cave Temple at Sittanavasal, an ancient rock-cut Jain Monastic complex in Tamil Nadu, is celebrated for its stunning frescoes of Jain figures. Mahavira achieved Kaivalaya at Jimbhikagrama by the Rijupalika river under a Sal tree.

UPSC 2023

Q. How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?

1. Only one
2. Only two
3. All three
4. None

Answer: Only two

Besnagar:

In the 2nd century BCE, Heliodorus, a Greek Ambassador, visited the Vidisa region of India and erected a Garudadhvaja in honor of God Vasudeva, also known as Krishna. As a result, he embraced the Bhagavata Sect. Archaeological findings suggest that Besnagar in Vidisha was likely a hub for the Vaisnava Pāncarātra or Bhāgavata sect. Excavations in the early 1900s revealed remnants of Buddhist, Jaina, and Hindu temples at Besnagar, contradicting Statement 1.

Bhaja:

The Bhaja Caves, a collection of 22 rock-cut caves from the 2nd century BC, are situated near the Lonavala hill station in Pune, Maharashtra, India. These ancient Buddhist caves showcase some of the earliest instances of Indian rock-cut architecture. Similar in style to the nearby Karla Caves, the Bhaja Caves are carved into a hillside, featuring viharas (monasteries) and chaityas (prayer halls). Predominantly used as residences for monks during the monsoon season, the majority of these caves are viharas.

Sittanavasal:

Nestled in the Pudukottai district of Tamil Nadu, India, the Sittanavasal Cave stands as a noteworthy archaeological and historical site celebrated for its ancient Jain rock-cut architecture, cave paintings, and inscriptions. Originating from the 2nd century BCE, these caves serve as a testament to the vibrant culture and artistic expressions of Jain ascetics.

At the heart of Sittanavasal is the Arivar Koil, the main cave housing a rock-cut temple and monastery adorned with a series of chambers. It is likely that Jain monks utilized these chambers for their daily activities, encompassing meditation and study. The very name “Sittanavasal” resonates with significance, translating to “the abode of great saints,” emphasizing its profound status as a pivotal Jain religious site.

Jainism promoted the concept of Anuvrata, comprising Ahimsa, Asateya, Aparigraha, Satya, and Brahmacharya. Jiva, in Jainism, extends beyond animal and plant life to include souls in natural elements like rocks and water.

UPSC 2023

Q. “Souls are not only the property of animal and plant life, but also of rocks, running water and many other natural objects not looked on as living by other religious sects.”

The Above statement reflects one of the core beliefs of which one of the following religious sects of ancient India?

(a) Buddhism

(b) Jainism

(c) Shaivism

(d) Vaishnavism

Answer – Jainism.

• The First Jaina Council convened in Pataliputra around 300 BC, and the Second was held in Vallabhi in 512 AD. 
• Anekantavada is a core philosophy of Jainism, recognizing multiple aspects of truth.

UPSC 2009

Q. Anekantavada is a core theory and philosophy of which of the following?

1. Buddhism
2. Jainism
3. Brahmanism
4. Sikhism

Answer: Jainism

• The principle of Anekantavada is related to Jainism.
• It states that the ultimate truth and reality is complex and has multiple aspects.
• According to Jainism, no single, specific statement can describe the nature of existence and the absolute truth.
• Jain sacred books include 12 Angas, 12 Upangas, 10 Prikarnas, 6 Chhedasutras, 4 Mulasutras, and 2 Sutra Granthas.
• Buddha, born in 563 BC in Lumbini, Nepal, delivered his first sermon at Isipatana (Sarnath) in Banaras, known as Dharma Chakra Pravartana. The Bhaja caves showcase ancient rock-cut Buddhist architecture with sculptures and reliefs.
• Buddha outlined the Four Noble Truths, and Buddhism has three main sects: Mahayana, Hinayana, and Vajrayana. Hinayana, a godless religion, uses Pali language.
• Ashoka supported Hinayanism, and Vaibhashika and Sautrantika are prominent Hinayana sects.
• The Stupa, a Buddhist structure, holds relics and serves as a commemorative structure.
• Nagarjuna founded Mahayana, believing in salvation through Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
• Vajrayana, the “Vehicle of Thunderbolt,” seeks salvation through Vajra. Nirvana signifies the extinguishing of desire and the cessation of suffering.

UPSC 2013

Q. Which one of the following describes best the concept of Nirvana in Buddhism?

1. The extinction of the flame of desire

2. The complete annihilation of self

3. A state of bliss and rest

4. A mental stage beyond all comprehension

Answer: The extinction of the flame of desire

• Nibbana (Nirvana): The primary objective of the Buddha’s teachings was the realization of Nibbana, an experiential state attainable in one’s lifetime.
• Nirvana entails the relinquishment of all desires, culminating in the cessation of suffering and ultimate liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Therefore, Statement 1 holds true.
• The path to ‘nirvana’ involves the systematic elimination of desires.
• Buddha emphasized that the root issue lies in the annihilation of desire, asserting that rituals and ceremonies cannot quell it. In contrast to Vedic religion’s focus on rites, he stressed the moral conduct of individuals.
• Both the Buddha and some of his followers are said to have attained Nibbana.
• Nibbana, literally signifying extinguishing, drying out, or extinction, refers to the eradication of desire, attachment, greed, hatred, ignorance, and the sense of self. It marks liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.
• Importantly, Nibbana does not imply physical death.
• The term ‘parinibbana’ is employed to describe the complete and final passing away of an enlightened being, such as the Buddha.
• The First Buddhist Council in 483 BC compiled Vinay Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka. The Second Buddhist Council in 383 BC at Vaishali led to the Theravada-Maha Sanghika split. The Third Buddhist Council in 250 BC at Pataliputra, under Ashoka, compiled Abhidhamma Pitaka. The Fourth Buddhist Council in the first century AD in Kashmir was presided over by Vasumitra.
• Maitreya Buddha is anticipated in the future. The Vinaya Pitaka contains rules for monks, and Milinda Panha is a discussion between Menander and Buddhist monk Nagasena.

UPSC 1997

Q. ‘Milinda-Panha’ was written by

1. Nagasena
2. Nagarjuna
3. Buddha Ghosha
4. Aswa Ghosha

Answer Option 1 : Nagasena

• The Milindapanho, a Buddhist text believed to have originated between 100 BC and 200 AD, documents a conversation between the Indian Buddhist sage Nagasena and the Indo-Greek king Menander of Bactria, who ruled in the 2nd century BC.
• In Burmese Buddhism, the Milinda Panha holds canonical status and is included in the Khuddaka Nikaya.
• Chinese Mahayana translations of the canon feature an abbreviated version of the Milinda Panha.
• However, Thai and Sri Lankan Buddhism does not recognize the Milinda Panha as canonical, despite the existing Theravada text being in Sinhalese script.
• The Chinese text known as the Monk Nagasena Sutra corresponds to the initial three chapters of the Milindapanha and was translated during the Eastern Jin dynasty.
• Bhavabhuti, Hastimalla, and Kshemeshvara were renowned playwrights in Ancient India.

UPSC 2021

Q. With reference to the history of ancient India, Bhavabhuti, Hastimalla and Kshemeshvara were famous

1. Jain monks
2. playwrights
3. temple architects
4. philosophers

Answer : playwrights

• Bhavabhuti, renowned for his Sanskrit plays such as Mahaviracharita and Malatimadhava, is thought to have served as the court poet for King Yashovarman of Kannauj.
• Hastimalla, an accomplished Kannada poet and playwright within the Hoysala Empire, authored eight plays, including Vikrant Kaurava and Subhadra Harana.
• Kshemeshvara, another playwright from ancient times, also contributed to the rich literary landscape of that era.

The First Territorial States

• During the time of Buddha, the Anguttara Nikaya, a Buddhist text, enumerates the names of 16 Mahajanapadas.
• The Buddhist literature lists six Mahanagars: Champa, Rajagriha, Kashi, Shravasti, Saketa, and Kausambi.
• Kapilavastu’s Shakya was located on the northern boundary of the Nepal terai region.
• Bhagga of Sumsumgiri extended into the modern-day Mirzapur district of Uttar Pradesh.
• The founders of Magadha were Jarasandha and Brihadratha, with growth initiated under the Haryankas.
• The earliest capital of Magadha, known as Girivraja at that time, was Rajgir.
• Bimbisara (542-493 BC) strengthened his position through matrimonial alliances.
• Ajatasatru (492-460 BC) succeeded Bimbisara by killing his father and seizing the throne.
• Udayin (460-444 BC) succeeded Ajatasatru, temporarily moving the capital to Vaishali.
• According to the Aitareya Brahmana in the 6th century, states were categorized into five types: Samraja, Bhojya, Swaraja, Vairajya, and Rajya.
• Monarchy, in its true sense, was first established in Kosala and Magadha.

The Mauryan Empire

• Chandragupta Maurya (321-298 BC) founded the Mauryan empire and took the throne at 25.
• Kautilya’s Arthashastra details the organization of a well-structured government.
• Megasthenes, ambassador of Seleucus Nicator, wrote Indika in Greek about Chandragupta’s court
• Vishakhadatta’s Mudrarakshasha, a Sanskrit drama from the fourth century AD, depicts the socio-economic conditions of the time.
• Parisithaparvan, a Jaina work by Hemachandra, serves as a biography of Chanakya.
• According to Parishtaparvan, Chandragupta belonged to the community of royal peacock rearers.
• Bindusara (298-273 BC), Chandragupta’s son, was called Amitraghata (slayer of foes) by Greek writers.
• Ashoka, founder of Srinagar, led to the UNESCO recognition of the Sanchi stupa as a World Heritage Site.
• James Princep deciphered Emperor Ashoka’s edicts.

UPSC 2016

Q. Who of the following had first deciphered the edicts of Emperor Ashoka?

1. Georg Buhler
2. James Prinsep
3. Max Muller
4. William Jones

Answer: James Prinsep

Ashoka (269 to 232 BC):

Born to Bindusara, Ashoka was also known by the names Devanampiya and Piyadasi.

Ascending to the throne in 269 BC, he gained renown for the pivotal Battle of Kalinga in 261 BC.

The deciphering of Ashoka’s edict inscriptions, dating back to 1837, was accomplished by James Prinsep.

• Ashokan Rock Edicts II and XII provide information about the Sangama King.

Question upsc 1998

• Important internal trade routes included the South-West route from Sravasti to Pratisthana and the East-West route from Taxila to Pataliputra.
• Ashoka‘s name is explicitly mentioned in only three inscriptions at Maski, Gujarra, and Nettur.

Post-Mauryan Age

• Gargi Samhita, Patanjali’s Mahabhasya, Kalidas’s Malvikagni Mitram, and Banabhatta’s Harshacharita provide information about the Sunga dynasty.
• Pushyamitra Sunga, who assassinated the last Mauryan King Brihadrath in 184 BC, founded the Sunga dynasty.
• Pushyamitra’s son Agnimitra, hero of Kalidasa’s Malvikagnimitram, succeeded him.
• Vasudeva initiated the Kanva dynasty in Magadha, with four rulers, including Bhumimitra, Narayana, and Susarman.
• Kanva, the second ruler (207-189 BC), is confirmed by the Nasik inscription.
• Shri Satakarni I, son of Simuka, married Naganika and held titles like Dakshina Pathapati and Aparatihata Chakra.
• Kharavela, a Jainism follower, is known from the Hathigumpha Inscription in Prakrit and Brahmi script.
• Sakas, also known as Scythians, and Parthians are collectively called Saka-Pahlawa.
• Sakas entered India through the Bolan pass, settling initially in the lower Indus region.
• Menander (165-145 BC), the prominent Indo-Greek ruler, had his capital at Sakala in Punjab 
• The issuance of gold coins in India began with the Indo-Greeks and saw a notable increase under the Kushanas.
• Kanishka, the renowned Kushana ruler, played a key role in this period.
• Sushruta, a prominent medical scholar, lived during Kanishka’s reign and authored the Sushruta Samhita.

UPSC 2012

Q. With reference to the scientific progress of ancient India, which of the statements given below are correct?

1. Different kinds of specialized surgical instruments were in common use by the 1st century AD.

2. Transplant of internal organs in the human body had begun by the beginning of the 3rd century AD.

3. The concept of sine of an angle was known in the 5th century AD.

4. The concept of cyclic quadrilaterals was known in the 7th century AD.

1. 1 and 2 only

2. 3 and 4 only

3. 1, 3 and 4 only

4. 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: 1,3 and 4 only

Specialized surgical instruments were already in widespread use by the 1st century AD.

Examining this statement, we learn that Sushrut, acknowledged as the earliest surgeon in ancient India, utilized surgical instruments of the S-type and U-type, and he even documented procedures related to plastic surgery.

Despite Sushruta’s significant contributions, historians have encountered challenges in pinpointing a precise timeframe for his existence.

It is highly likely that the era of Sushrut predates the 1st century AD and falls within the BC period, although an exact date remains elusive.

• Charak, a contemporary of King Kanishka from the Kushana dynasty, wrote the Charak Samhita, a medical book.

UPSC 1996

Q. With reference to Charak Samhita, consider the following statements:

1.It is a medical pharmacopoeia and collection of commentaries and discussions on medical practices.

2.It is considered as the foundational text of ancient Indian medicine.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: C

Notes: Both the statements are correct.

• Kanishka I (78-144 AD) had Peshawar as his capital, with Mathura serving as his second capital. The Kushana rulers pioneered the widespread issuance of gold coins.

The Sangam Age

• Sangam, meaning the gathering of literary figures, witnessed three occurrences in the southern Indian Peninsula.
• The First Sangam, led by sage Agastya in Madurai, saw 549 participants. The Second Sangam, presided over by Tolakappiyar, took place at Kapatpuram. The Third Sangam, led by Nakkirar, was held in North Madurai.

Question upsc 2000

• Tolkappiyam classifies Tamil society into four Varnas. The genre Agam explores subjective experiences like love, while Puram delves into objectifiable experiences like raid or plunder.
• According to Megasthenes, the Pandya dynasty, known for woman rulers and pearls, was founded by Nediyan.
• Sangam literature divides into narrative and didactic groups, with Melkannakku or Eighteen Major Works comprising eight anthologies (Ettutogai) and ten idylls (Pattupatta).
• Sangam poems mention the practice of Vattakirutal, wherein a defeated king commits ritual suicide by starving himself to death.
• Tolkappiyar’s Tolkappiyam addresses Tamil grammar, literary tradition, and sociology. Tirukkural or Kural by Tiruvalluvar is sometimes referred to as the Veda of the South or the Fifth Veda.
• Silappadikaram, literally the Jewelled Anklet by Ilango Adigali, is an epic depicting the love story between Kovalan, a merchant from Puhar, and the courtesan Madhavi.

The Gupta Empire

• The Gupta dynasty, established by Srigupta in the third century AD, began with him using the title Maharaja.
• Ghatotkacha Gupta succeeded Srigupta, and Ghatotkacha’s son Chandragupta I followed in succession.
• Chandragupta I was the first king to adopt the title Maharajadhiraja. The Gupta empire saw significant expansion under Chandragupta I’s son and successor, Samudragupta.
• Known for military achievements, Samudragupta implemented a policy of conquest and introduced the imperial idea of Dharnibandha or Digvijay.
• Chandragupta II succeeded Samudragupta, and during his reign, Fa-Hien visited India, making a pilgrimage to Lumbini, the birthplace of Gautama Buddha in modern Nepal.
• Chandragupta II adopted the title Vikramaditya and established Ujjain as his second capital.
• Kumaragupta I succeeded Chandragupta II, and his reign was marked by wars with the Pushyamitras.
• Kumaragupta I performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice and issued Ashvamedha type gold coins, signifying his adoption of the title Mahendraditya.
• Kumaramatyas were crucial officers, and the Gupta empire was divided into Bhuktis led by Uparika. Bhuktis were further divided into districts called Vishyas, headed by Vishyapatis.
• Tamralipti, a port in Bengal, played a significant role as a trade center with connections to China, Ceylon, Java, and Sumatra. During this period, Vishti (forced labor) served as a source of income, akin to a tax paid by the people.
• Supreme judicial power rested with the king, assisted by the Mahadandanayaka (Chief Justice).
• Sandhi-Vigrahika managed war and peace, while Pilupati led the elephants.
• Karmandaka’s Nitisara emphasized the king’s responsibility for the treasury, crucial for the state’s survival.
• The Ajanta caves, featuring exceptional fresco paintings, were constructed between the first and seventh centuries AD.
• The central figures in the portraits are the various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.
• The Bagh caves predominantly feature folk culture as their basic theme, with paintings in caves nine and ten dating back to the first and second century BC.
• The Gupta era marked a dynamic period in Art and Architecture, encompassing both secular and religious aspects.

Post-Gupta Era

• The Maitrakas established their kingdom in Saurashtra with Vallabhi as the capital, while the Pushyabhuti’s capital was Thaneswar.
• Kannauj retained its position as the center of political activity in North India until the Turkish conquests in the late 12th century.
• The Harsha empire was organized into provinces known as Bhuktis.
• Bhuktis were further divided into districts called Visayas, and Visayas were subdivided into tehsils or pathaks, along with villages or gramas.
• Kalidasa’s first dramatic work is Malavikagnimitram, and he also composed the lyrical poem Ritu-samhar.
• The text is divided into six cantos, each describing a different season within the circle.
• Harsha emerged victorious over Dhruvasena II Baladitya, the Maitraka ruler of Vallabhi in Gujarat, but faced defeat by Pulakesin II along the banks of the Narmada River.
• Harsha’s authority extended primarily over North India, excluding Kashmir, Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Odisha.
• Harsha invited Hiuen-Tsang to witness his sixth quinquennial distribution of alms and gifts.

UPSC 2013

Q. The Chinese traveller Yuan Chwang (Hiuen Tsang) who visited India recorded the general conditions and culture of India at that time. In this context, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. The roads and river-routes were completely immune from Robbery.

2. As regards punishment for offences, ordeals by fire, water and poison were the instruments for determining the innocence or guilt of a person.

3. The tradesmen had to pay duties at ferries and barrier Stations

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

1. 1 only

2. 2 and 3 only

3. 1 and 3 only

4. 1, 2 and 3

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 2 : 2 and 3 only

• Yuan Chwang (Hiuen Tsang) documented the following observations about India:
• Diverse houses, constructed from wood, bricks, and dung, characterized the landscape. The city streets, however, were circular and unclean.
• Cities emerged anew to replace those that had fallen into ruin. Noteworthy gatherings took place in cities such as Prayag and Kannauj, the capital.
• Nalanda and Valabhi stood out as significant hubs of Buddhist learning.
• Indians adorned themselves in garments crafted from cotton, silk, and wool, displaying a deep appreciation for education, literature, and the fine arts.
• Commending Emperor Harsha and his administration, Yuan Chwang noted the severity of criminal law, with offenders facing imprisonment and ordeals. Despite this, the roads remained unsafe, as he himself fell victim to robbery multiple times. The emperor maintained a formidable and well-equipped army.
• The government, according to Yuan Chwang, adopted a lenient approach to tax and revenue collection. Tradesmen were subject to light duties at ferries and barrier stations.
• The diet of the people excluded meat, societal divisions were based on caste, and women generally received respect.
• The Brahmanical system of religion held prominence, and Sanskrit served as the language of the cultured classes.
• In Kalidasa’s court, the Meghadutam was written, while Gangaraja Durvinita authored a renowned grammar book called Shabdavatara.
• The Pallavas likely originated as a local tribe and established their dominance in Tondainadu, the land of creepers.
• Mahendravarman I (600-630) significantly contributed to the greatness of the Pallava dynasty.

UPSC 2020

Q. Consider the following events in the history of India:

1. Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja

2. Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman I

3. Establishment of Chola power by Parantaka I

4. Pala dynasty founded by Gopala

What is the correct chronological order of the above events, starting from the earliest time?

1. 2-1-4-3

2.3-1-4-2

3. 2-4-1-3

4. 3-4-1-2

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 3 : 2 – 4 – 1 – 3

• The rise to prominence of the Pallavas occurred under the rule of Mahendravarman I (571-630 CE).
• The Pala dynasty, established by Gopala in CE 750, endured until the 770s CE.
• King Bhoja of Pratihara governed from 836 to 885 CE.
• Parantaka I of the Chola dynasty held sway from 907 to 953 CE.
• The most successful Pallava King, Narasimhavarman I (630-668 AD), captured the Chalukyan Capital Vatapi in 642, possibly resulting in the death of Pulkeshin II.

Medieval History

Early Medieval Phase from the 8th to 12th Century

• During this period, distinct regional culture units emerged, including Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bengal, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Odisha (Orissa), Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and others.
• Bengal was divided into Gauda (West Bengal) and Vanga (East Bengal), eventually leading to the entire region being named after Vanga.
• In Northern India, three powerful kingdoms emerged between 750-1000 AD.
• The Rashtrakutas ruled in the Northern Deccan, the Pratiharas in Avanti and parts of Southern Rajasthan, and the Palas in Bengal. Bahadur Shah, the medieval ruler of Gujarat, ceded Diu to the Portuguese.

UPSC 2023

Q. Who among the following rulers of medieval Gujarat surrendered Diu to the Portuguese?

1. Ahmad Shah

2. Mahmud Begarha

3. Bahadur Shah

4. Muhammad Shah

Answer (Detailed Solution Below

option 3 : Bahadur Shah

Q. Consider the following dynasties :

1. Hoysala

2. Gahadavala

3. Kakatiya

4. Yadava

How many of the above dynasties established their kingdoms in the early eighth century AD?

1. Only one

2. Only two

3. Only three

4. None

Answer (Detailed Solution Belo

Option 4 : None

• Hoysala Dynasty: Ruling over a significant portion of present-day Karnataka, India, the Hoysala Dynasty held sway from the 10th to the 14th centuries. Initially centered in Belur, their capital later shifted to Halebidu.
• Gahadavala Dynasty: Dominating the Gangetic plains of North India in the late 11th and early 12th centuries AD, the Gahadavala Dynasty established its capital in Kanyakubja, present-day Kannauj.
• Kakatiya Dynasty: The Kakatiya Dynasty, a prominent South Indian ruling family, governed the eastern Deccan region, encompassing modern-day Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and parts of eastern Karnataka and southern Odisha, from the 12th to the 14th centuries. Orugallu, now Warangal, served as their capital.
• Yadava Dynasty:The Yadavas of Devagiri held sway over a kingdom in central India, surrounding the modern city of Aurangabad in Maharashtra, from the 9th century until the early 14th century.
• Importantly, none of these mentioned dynasties established their kingdoms in the early eighth century AD.
• The Rashtrakuta dynasty, founded in the early 8th century by Dantidurga, also known as Dantivarman, established its empire after defeating Chalukya ruler Kirtivarman II.
• In the Chola dynasty, the king led the central authority, supported by a council of ministers. Chola administration was democratic, emphasizing local self-government. 

Chola architecture, known as Dravida, featured intricate image making, reaching its zenith in the dancing figure of Lord Shiva known as Nataraja.

The Age of the Rajputs

• The era spanning from 647 AD to 1119 AD, encompassing 500 years, is commonly referred to as the Rajput Period in Indian history.
• The Rajputs trace their lineage back to the ancient Kshatriyas, belonging to either the Suryavansha or the Chandravansha.
• Four clans claimed descent from the fire family (Agnikula): the Pratihars in Rajasthan, the Chauhans in Rajasthan, the Chalukyas of Gujarat in Kathiawar, and the Pawars or Parmars in Malwa. The Gahadvals of Kannauj, founded by Chandradeva, is another notable dynasty.
• Jaichandra (1170 AD-1194 AD) engaged in conflict with the Chauhan ruler Prithviraj III of Delhi and Ajmer (Prithviraj Raso).
• Jaichandra, the last Rajput king, was defeated and killed by Mohammed Ghori in the Battle of Chandawar in 1194.
• Govindchandra repelled the Muslim expedition sent by the Ghaznavid King, Masud III, under Hajib Tughatigin, succeeding his father Madanapala.
• Vijayachandra resisted Arab and Turkish aggressions.
• Vasudeva founded the Shakambari branch of the Chahamana dynasty in the middle of the sixth century AD.
• Vakpatiraja (917-944 AD), another ruler of this dynasty, constructed a Shiva temple at Pushkara resembling Kailasa.
• Vigraharaj II (971-998 AD) is considered the true founder of this dynasty.
• Ajayraja II (1110-1135 AD) established the city of Ajayameru or Ajmer as his capital, known as Ajaydeva and Salhana.
• Vigraharaj III, a Chahamana ruler, conquered Delhi from the Tomars and composed the drama Harikeli Nataka. Vigraharaj IV (Vilasdeva) was another renowned ruler, honored with the title Kavibandhava. Mahakavi Somadeva, his court poet, wrote a play named Lalit Vigraharajanataka in his honor.
• Prithviraj III compelled the Chalukya King Bhima II to conclude a treaty and triumphed over Mohammed Ghori.
• In the First Battle of Terain in 1191 AD, Prithviraj III faced Ghori but was defeated, imprisoned, and later executed by Ghori in the Second Battle of Terain in 1192.
• The most illustrious ruler of this dynasty was Bhoja, also known as Kaviraja, who authored a commentary on Patanjali’s Yogasutra.
• The Chandellas rose to power in Southern Bundelkhand under Nannuka in the early ninth century, establishing their capital at Khajuravahaka (modern Khajuraho).
• Alptigin, an adventurer, founded the principality of Ghazni in 962 AD. After his demise in 977 AD, his slave and son-in-law Subuktigin took over.
• Mohammed Gauri (1175 AD-1206 AD) invaded India, laying the groundwork for Muslim domination. He is often regarded as the Founder of Muslim Rule in India.

The Delhi Sultanate

• The Delhi Sultanate is divided into five dynasties:

1. The Slave dynasty (1206-1290)
2. The Khilji dynasty (1290-1320)
3. The Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1414)
4. The Sayyid dynasty (1414-1451)
5. The Lodhi dynasty (1451-1526)

• Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a patron of learning, supported writers like Hasan-un-Nizami and Fakhruddin. He was titled Lakh Baksh.
• Feroz Shah Tughlaq, the Sultan of Delhi, is known for building the largest canal network in India.
• Feroz Shah Tughlaq constructed two mosques: Quwwat-ul-Islam in Delhi and Adhai din ka Jhopra in Ajmer.
• The Iqta system of land control was introduced in the Delhi Sultanate by Iltutmish 

UPSC 2019

Q. Consider the following statements :

1. It was during the reign of Iltutmish that Chengiz Khan reached the Indus in pursuit of the fugitive Khwarezm prince.

2. It was during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq that Taimur occupied Multan and crossed the Indus.

3. It was during the reign of Deva Raya II of Vijayanagara Empire that Vasco Da gama reached the Coast of Kerala.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. 1 only

2. 1 and 2

3. 3 only

4. 2 and 3

Answer (Detailed Solution Below

Option 1 : 1 only

• Under the reign of Iltutmish, Jalal al-Din was defeated by Chenghiz Khan near the banks of the Indus, making statement 1 correct.
• Muhammad Bin Tughluq served as the Sultan of Delhi from 1325 to 1351 AD. However, the statement claiming Timur’s invasion of India in 1398 AD, crossing the Indus to ravage Multan and Punjab, is incorrect.
• Deva Raya II governed the Vijayanagara empire from 1422 to 1446 AD, but the statement asserting Vasco Da Gama’s arrival on the Kerala coast in 1498 is inaccurate.
• Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, a former slave of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, took the Delhi throne in 1211, introducing the silver coin (Tanka) and copper coin (Jital).
• Nasir-ud-din Mahmud was the last ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty in the Delhi Sultanate 
• Nasir-ud-din Mahmud organized the Iqta system, reformed civil administration and the army, and established the Chahalgani/Chalsia, an official nobility of slaves
• Razia Sultana, the only Muslim lady to rule India, faced rebellion from the Governors of Multan, Hansi, and Lahore after her accession in Badaun.
• The revolt, breaking the Chiver of Chalisa, was countered by Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266-1287), who restored the crown’s prestige, contributing significantly to the stability of the Sultanate.
• Balban introduced the Sijda (prostration before the monarch) and Paibos (kissing the feet of the monarch) as standard forms of salutation. His concept of kingship was influenced by the Persian court model, and he adopted the title Zil-i-Ilahi (Shadow of God) 
• Alauddin (1296-1316) expanded the Sultanate by annexing Gujarat (1298), Ranthambhor (1301), Mewar (1303), Malwa (1305), and Jalor (1311).
• Alauddin implemented the Dagh system (Branding of horses), introduced the Chehra (descriptive roll of soldiers), and created the position of a special officer called Mustakharaj for revenue collection.
• He contributed to architectural marvels like the gate of Qutub Minar, the palace of a thousand pillars (Hazar Sutun), and constructed the Alai Darwaza. Amir Khusrau, the poet-musician, was his favorite court poet.
• Muhammed-bin-Tughlaq (1325-1351) attempted administrative reforms, including Taxation in the Doab (1326), Transfer of Capital (1327), Introduction of Token Currency (1329), Khurasan Expedition (1329), and Qarachil Expedition (1330). He established the Department of Agriculture called Diwan-i-Kohi 
• During Firoz’s reign, Jaziya became a separate tax, and Brahmanas were not exempted from its payment. Four taxes sanctioned by the Koran—Kharaj, Zakat, Jaziya, and Khans—were imposed.
• Sikandar Lodhi, son of Bahlol Lodhi, conquered Bihar and Western Bengal. He was the ruler of the Lodhi dynasty, the last Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate. Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526.

 Cultural Development in India

• Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti (1141-1236) founded the Chisti order, the first and most liberal Sufi order in India 
• In the 13th century, Shaikh Badr-ud-din Samarkandi established the Firdausi order, primarily confined to Bihar. Another Firdausi Sufi saint was Shaikh Sharf-ud-din Maneri.
• The Naqshbandi order was founded by Baha-ud-din Naqshband Bukhari (1318-1389) in Bukhara, known for his opposition to the Shias.
• The Roshanniya order, established by Miyan Bayazid Ansari, also known as Pir Roshan, emerged during Akbar’s time. Miyan Bayazid Ansari authored the book Khair-ul-Bayan.
• Shankaracharya (788 AD-822 AD), also called Pseudo-Buddha, is considered the Saviour of Modern Hinduism. Born in Kalindi, Kerala, he established four Mathas at Badrinath, Puri, Sringeri, and Dwarka.
• The Sthanakvasi sect, associated with Jainism, was founded by the merchant Lavaji in 1653 

UPSC 2018

Q. With reference to the religious practices in India, the

“Sthanakvasi” sect belongs to

1. Budddhism

2. Jainism

3. Vaishnavism

4. Shaivism

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 2 : Jainism

Sthanakavasi:

A sect within Svetambara Jainism.

Established by the merchant Lavaji in 1653 AD.

Rejects the practice of idol worship.

Holds the belief that idol worship is not crucial for the purification of the soul and the attainment of Nirvana/Moksha.

• Ramanujacharya (1017 AD-1137 AD), a Tamil Vaishnavite Saint, introduced the philosophy of Visistadvaita.
• Madhavacharya (13th century), a Kannada Vaishnavite Saint, contributed the philosophy of Dvaita.
• Vallabhacharya (1491 AD-1531 AD), a Telugu Vaishnava Saint born in Varanasi, established the philosophy of Shuddhadvaita, and his teachings are known as Pushtimarga.
• Guru Nanak (1469 AD-1539 AD) was born in Talwandi, Lahore. He advocated Monoism, Hindu-Muslim unity, and opposed idol worship 
• Kabir (1440 AD-1510 AD) opposed caste, creed, and image worship, promoting Hindu-Muslim unity. His works include Sabada Doha, Holi, and Rekhtal. The term “Bijak” refers to the compositions of Saint Kabir, holding significance for followers of the Kabirpanthi religion.
• Tulsidas (1532 AD-1623 AD) lived during the same period as Akbar and authored significant works, including Ramcharitmanas, Kavitavali, Gitavali, and Parvati Mangal.
• Ramananda (14th-15th centuries AD) popularized Bhakti in North India and organized a group of followers known as Bairagis. Surdas (1483 AD-1563 AD), a blind poet from Agra, was a disciple of Vallabhacharya
• Mirabai (1498 AD-1546 AD), a Rathor princess of Merata and daughter-in-law of Rana Sanga of Mewar, composed the verse Padavali.
• Chaitanya (1486 AD-1533 AD), the founder of Gaurang or Bengal Vaishnavism, was known as Gaudiya Mahaprabhu. His teacher was Ishwapuri. Shankara Deva (1449 AD-1568 AD) established the Eik Sharan Sampradaya or Mahapurushiya Sampradaya.
• Jnanesvara/Jnanadeva (1271-1296 AD) was associated with the Krishnamargi sect.
• Namdeva (1270 AD-1350 AD) founded the Varkari sect, opposing caste discrimination despite his caste as a tailor.
• Eknath (1533 AD-1599 AD) was linked to the Varakari sect and wrote a commentary in the Ramayana known as the Bhavartha Ramayana.
• Tukaram (1598 AD-1650 AD), associated with Dharkari and Varkari sects, was a teacher of Shivaji and composed Abhangas.
• Ramdas (1608 AD-1681 AD) compiled his writings and sermons in Dasabodha.

Provincial Kingdoms

• Ikhtiyar ad-din Muhammad-bin-Bakhtiyar Khilji incorporated Bengal into the Delhi Sultanate in 1204.
• During the rule of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, Bengal province seceded from Delhi, and Sher Shah Suri occupied the region in 1538.
• In the first half of the 13th century, the Ahoms, led by Sukapha, established a kingdom in Assam.
• Anantavarman Choda Ganga, ruling from 1076 to 1148, consolidated the Kingdom of Orissa (Odisha) and commissioned the construction of the renowned Jagannath temple. He successfully repelled the Turkish invasion.
• Zafar Khan, who assumed the title of Sultan Muzaffar Shah, orchestrated the separation of Gujarat province from Delhi in 1397.
• Alauddin Khilji annexed Malwa province in 1305, and it remained under the Sultanate until Governor Dilawar Khan Ghori declared independence in 1435.
• Malwa thrived during Hushang Shah’s reign, who embellished Mandu with structures like Jama Masjid and Hindol Mahal.
• In 1531, Malwa became a part of Gujarat and was eventually incorporated into the Mughal Empire in 1562 
• The court of Rara Kumbha, enriched by Mandan, featured numerous architectural books, including Parsad Mandan and Rupa Mandan.
• Bikaner, founded in 1465 by Bika, a son of Jodha, was a ruler of Malwa.
• Harihara I and Bukka I, sons of Sangama, established the Vijayanagara kingdom in 1336, later becoming Vijayanagara emperors of the Sangama dynasty. Saluva Narasimha, a powerful feudatory of the Sangamas, ruled Chandragiri.
• Krishnadeva Raya of Vijayanagara maintained friendly relations with Albuquerque, the Portuguese Governor, and hosted his ambassador Friar Luis 

 UPSC  2016

Q. With reference to Indian history, consider the following Statements:

1. The Dutch established their factories/warehouses on the east coast on lands granted to them by Gajapati rulers.

2. Alfonso de Albuquerque captured Goa from the Bijapur Sultanate.

3. The English East India Company established a factory at Madras on a plot of land leased from a representative of the

Vijayanagara empire.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

1. 1 and 2 only

2. 2 and 3 only

3. 1 and 3 only

4. 1, 2 and 3

Answer 

Option 2 : 2 and 3 only

• The Aravidu dynasty, founded by Thirumala II, brother of Rama Raja, ruled in the name of Sadasiva Raya.
• The Nayankara and Ayyangar systems were integral to Vijayanagara administration.
• The Bahmani kingdom, established in 1347 by Hasan Gangu, declared independence from the Sultanate under the title of Aluuddin Bahmani or Bahman Shah.

The Mughal Empire

• Babur established the Mughal Empire after defeating Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat on April 21, 1526. This victory marked the inception of the Mughal dynasty.
• The Second Battle of Panipat occurred on November 5, 1556, between Hemu and Bairam Khan, resulting in Hemu’s defeat.
• Babur penned his autobiography, Tuzuk-e-Baburi, in Chagtai-Turkish, providing an insightful account of India. Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana later translated it into Persian, named Baburnama.
• Humayun faced two battles against Sher Shah at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj/Bilgram (1540) and suffered defeat. His biography, Humayunama, was authored by his sister, Gulbadan Begum. Sher Shah, the victor, constructed the Grand Trunk Road (GT Road) and Purana Qila in Delhi.
• Akbar, known for his tolerance, initiated a new faith, Din-e-Ilahi, despite being a Muslim. He ascended the throne with the title of Jalal-ud-din Mohammed.
• Jahangir, who ruled from 1605 to 1627 after Akbar, issued 12 ordinances and established Zanjir-i-Adal at Agra fort for seekers of royal justice. His reign witnessed a shift in Mughal painting towards individual portraits and albums
• The zenith of Mughal painting likely occurred during Jahangir’s peaceful and prosperous rule. He was succeeded by his son, Shah Jahan, who, in memory of his wife Mumtaz, commissioned the construction of the Taj Mahal, designed by the Persian architect Ustad Ahmad Lahauri 
• In 1857, the last Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, faced trial for allegedly leading the rebels during the mutiny and inciting sedition. Convicted, he was deported to spend the remainder of his life in exile.

The Maratha Empire

• Shivaji, a member of the Bhosle clan, established the Maratha empire from 1674 to 1680.
• In 1674, Shivaji assumed the title of Chhatrapati (sovereign) and founded an independent Maratha kingdom.
• Following Aurangzeb’s demise in 1707, Shahuji, the son of Sambhaji and grandson of Shivaji, was released by Azam Shah.
• The succession dispute over Maratha kingship led to the establishment of the States of Satara and Kolhapur in 1707.
• Shivaji instituted the Ashta Pradhan, a Council of eight ministers, in Maratha administration . Among them, Ramchandra Pant Amatya, an administrator, climbed from the position of a local Kulkarni to the ranks of Ashtapradhan with the guidance and support of Shivaji.
• After Balaji Vishwanath’s death in April 1720, his son Baji Rao I was appointed Peshwa by Chhatrapati Shahuji.
• Baji Rao I, also known as Shrimant Baji Rao Vishwanath Bhatt, succeeded his father as Peshwa at the age of 20. Renowned as the greatest practitioner of guerrilla tactics since Shivaji, the Maratha power reached its zenith under his leadership
• Balaji Baji Rao, popularly known as Nana Saheb, assumed leadership at the age of 20. The Third Battle of Panipat on January 14, 1761, resulted in the Marathas’ defeat by Ahmad Shah Abdali, leading to the death of Viswas Rao (son of Nana Saheb) and Sadashiv Rao Bhau.

Modern History

• In the 18th century, Murshid Quli Khan assumed the role of Bengal Diwan in 1700 under Aurangzeb’s appointment.
• Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah established the autonomous State of Hyderabad in 1724, originally known as Chinqilich Khan. Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar honored him with the titles Khan-e-Dauran and later Nizam-ul-Mulk.
• Haider Ali founded the autonomous State of Mysore in 1761 by overthrowing the Nanjarajar, who served as the Prime Minister of Wodeyar King Krishnaraja.
• Various Maratha families gained prominence and established themselves in different regions of India, including the Gaekwad in Baroda, the Bhonsles in Nagpur, the Holkars in Indore, the Scindias in Gwalior, and the Peshwas in Poona.

European Penetration and British Conquest of India

• The Portuguese were the pioneers among Europeans to reach India, resulting in the creation of trading stations in Calicut, Cochin, and Cannanore.
• Vasco-da-Gama’s exploration unveiled the Cape Route from Europe to India, bringing him to the port of Calicut on May 20th, 1498, where he was welcomed by the Hindu ruler holding the title of Zamorin 
• Alfonso de Albuquerque, the second Governor of the Portuguese in India, arrived in 1503. Francisco de Almeida, the first Governor (1505-1509), captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur in 1510. Albuquerque introduced the Policy of Imperialism during his tenure.
• The Dutch East India Company was established in March 1602, and Dutch factories were established at Masulipatnam (1605), Pulicat (1610), Surat (1616), Bimilipatnam (1641), Chinsura (1653), Kasimbazar, Patna, Balasore, Nagapatnam (all in 1658), and Cochin (1663) 
• In 1609, Captain Hawkins arrived at Jahangir’s Court seeking permission. Jahangir issued a farman allowing the English to build a factory at Surat (1613). The English East India Company received permission in 1613 to establish a factory in Surat.
• The East India Company leased Bombay from Charles II, with Gerald Aungier as its first Governor from 1669 to 1677. The first factory was established in Surat in 1605
• The Danish East India Company arrived in India in 1616 and was compelled to sell all its settlements to the British in 1854.
• In 1694, the British Parliament passed a resolution granting equal trading rights to all Englishmen in the East. The English Company of Merchants Trading to the East Indies was formed in 1698.
• Archaeological excavations in India involved individuals such as Alexander Rea, AH Longhusst, Robert Sewell, James Burgess, and Walter Elliot

UPSC 2023

Q. With reference to the Indian History, Alexander Rea, A. H. Longhurst, Robert Sewell, James Burgess and Walter Elliot were associated with

1. archaeological excavations

2. establishment of English Press in Colonial India

3. establishment of Churches in Princely States

4. construction of railways in Colonial India

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 1 : archaeological excavations

• James Burgess embarked on his career as an Archaeological Surveyor for West India in 1873. Prior to this role, he had already conducted extensive surveys and compiled inventories of monuments in Bomby, Sindh, Berar, the Central Provinces, and Hyderabad. In 1874, he began his work in the Belgaum and Kaladgi districts, and later expanded to Kathiawad and Kachchha, the western dominions of the Nizam of Hyderabad.
• Upon the expiration of his initial term in 1879, Burgess received a four-year extension. In 1881, he transitioned to the role of Archaeological Surveyor of South India. During this period, noteworthy accomplishments included Robert Sewell’s investigation of the Amaravati stupa, surveys of the Vijayawada area and the stupas at Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta, exploration of Chalukyan temples in the Dharwar district, surveys of the Madurai district, examination of monuments in the Belgaum region, and study of the Mahabalipuram monuments by Alexander Rea.
• Hugly served as a base for piracy in the Bay of Bengal by the French (UPSC 1995).
• First Carnatic War (1746-1748): The Nawab of Carnatic’s army was defeated by the French under Dupleix.
• Second Carnatic War (1749-1754): Dupleix supported Muzaffar Jung and Chanda Sahib in Hyderabad and Carnatic, respectively. The war ended with the Treaty of Pondicherry in 1754.
• Third Carnatic War (1758-1763): In 1759, French Governor Count de Lally captured Fort St. David. Pondicherry was returned to France by the Treaty of Paris in 1763.
• Battle of Plassey (1757): The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah, was defeated by the British due to a conspiracy Battle of Buxar (1764): The combined forces of Shuja-ud-Daulah, Shah Alam II, and Mir Qasim were defeated by the British under Munro. Mir Jafar was placed on the throne.
• Dual System of Government (1765): The company acquired Diwani and Nizamat rights from Nazam-ud-Daulah. Warren Hastings abolished the Dual System in 1772.
• First Anglo-Mysore War (1766-1769): Haider Ali was defeated by the British, and the Treaty of Madras was signed in 1769.
• Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784): Warren Hastings attacked the French port, Mahe. Haider Ali led a joint front with Nizam and Maratha and captured Arcot.
• Third Anglo-Mysore War (1789-1792): Maratha and Nizam aided the British. Cornwallis captured Bangalore, and the Treaty of Mangalore was signed by Tipu Sultan in 1784 
• Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799): Lord Wellesley attacked, and Tipu Sultan died in battle.
• First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782): British (Hastings) supported Raghunath Rao (Raghoba) to become the Peshwa, but he was defeated, and the Treaty of Salbai was signed in 1782.
• Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1806): The Peshwa accepted the Subsidiary Alliance via the Treaty of Bassein in 1802.
• Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1819): Lord Hastings proclaimed British paramountcy, and the Marathas were decisively defeated.
• First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846): After the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, Sikhs were defeated, and the Treaty of Lahore was signed.
• Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849): Dalhousie annexed Punjab.
• First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1826): The British declared war on Burma, occupied Rangoon, and established peace through the Treaty of Yandaboo in 1826.
• Second Anglo-Burmese War (1935): The British annexed Pegu.
• Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885): The British attacked Burma, Thibaw surrendered, and in 1935, Burma was separated from India.
• First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842): British replaced Dost Muhammad with Shah Shuja.
• Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880): British attacked Afghanistan, and Sher Ali was defeated. A treaty was signed at Gandamak (Yakub Khan), and the principle of non-interference was adopted.

British Administrative Structure and Economic Policies

• The Drain of Wealth Theory was initially presented by Dadabhai Naoroji in his book Poverty and Unbritish Rule in India.
• RC Dutta attributed Indian economic challenges to British policies in “Economic History of India (1901-1903).”
• The Permanent Settlement designated Zamindars as landowners, allowing them to retain 1/11th of the revenue, with the British claiming a fixed share of 10/11th.
• Zamindars had the authority to set rents; this system was implemented in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and Banaras Districts.
• Under the Ryotwari System , a direct settlement occurred between the Government and the Ryot (cultivator), fixing revenue for up to 30 years based on soil quality and crop nature. Implemented in Bombay and Madras, recommended by Munro (Viceroy) and Charles Reed 

UPSC 2012, 2017)

Q. Who among the following was/were associated with the introduction of Ryotwari Settlement in India during the British

Rule?

1. Lord Cornwallis

2. Alexander Reed

3. Thomas Munro

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

1. 1 only

2. 1 and 3 only

3. 2 and 3 only

4. 1, 2 and 3

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 3 : 2 and 3 only

• Alexander Rea and Thomas Munro played key roles in implementing the Ryotwari Settlement during British rule in India. Thomas Munro spearheaded the introduction of the Ryotwari System in 1820, which was modeled on the system administered by Captain Alexander Rea. Initially implemented in Tamil Nadu, the system later expanded to cover Maharashtra, Berar, East Punjab, Coorg, and Assam.
• Under the Ryotwari System, ownership rights were directly transferred to the peasants, eliminating intermediaries between the government and individual cultivators. The British Government collected taxes directly from the peasants as part of this system.
• The Mahalwari System involved revenue settlement by villages or estates with landlords. Village communities with common ownership, known as Mahals, were part of this system.
• The Mahalwari System, a modified Zamindari settlement, was introduced in the Gariga valley, North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), parts of Central India, and Punjab.

Tribal Rebellions

• The conservative tribal population aimed to preserve the key aspects of their society, using the situation to combat and eradicate existing evils and ill-tendencies within their community.
• The Bhil Uprising (1818-1831) took place in the hill ranges of Khandesh, as the Bhils sought to address challenges and retain their traditional way of life.
• The Kol Uprising (1831-1832) was triggered by the transfer of tribal lands and the intrusion of merchants, moneylenders, and British law, posing a significant threat to the hereditary independent power of tribal chiefs.
• The Santhal Rebellion (1855-1856) occurred in the Rajmahal hills of the Santhal region, led by Sidhu and Kanhu. It originated as a response to outsiders, particularly landlords, police, and moneylenders.
• The Ramosi Uprisings (1822) saw a revolt led by Chittu Singh, resisting the new British pattern of administration and expressing discontent with the changes imposed on them.
• The Munda Uprising or Rebellion (1899-1900) occurred in the Chhotanagpur region near Ranchi and is alternatively referred to as Ulgulan, meaning “Great commotion.” The leader of this movement was Birsa Munda.

Governor-Generals of the Company

• Warren Hastings (1772-1785) assumed the role of Governor of Bengal in 1772 and later became Governor-General in 1773, following the Regulating Act of 1773. He abolished the Dual System of Administration.
• Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793) became the first person to codify laws in 1793, with the code separating revenue administration from the administration of justice.
• Lord Wellesley (1798-1805) initiated the subsidiary alliance system to establish British paramountcy in India.
• Sir George Barlow (1805-1807) presided over the conclusion of the Vellore mutiny and the resolution of the Second Anglo-Maratha War during his tenure.
• Lord Minto I (1807-1813) signed the Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh in 1809, and the Charter Act of 1813 was enacted during his time.
• Lord Hastings (1813-1823) pursued a policy of intervention and war in India and introduced the Ryotwari settlement in Madras through Thomas Munro.

Governor-Generals of India

• The Governor-General of Bengal was re-designated as the Governor-General of India by the Charter Act of 1833, as per.
• Lord W. Bentinck (1828-1835), acknowledged as the most liberal and enlightened Governor-General of India, is hailed as the Father of Modern Western Education in India. He served as the First Governor-General of India.
• The practice of Sati was banned in 1829 through , attributing pioneering efforts to Raja Rammohan Roy.
• Lord Ellenborough (1842-1844) concluded the Afghan War and annexed Sindh in 1843, also abolishing the Slavery System in the same year.
• Lord Hardinge (1844-1848) is renowned for his involvement in the Anglo-Sikh War, and the Treaty of Lahore marked the end of Sikh sovereignty in India.
• Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856) introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and captured various regions, including Satara (1848), Jaitpur and Sambhalpur (1849), Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), and Nagpur (1854), as indicated in

Viceroys of India

• Lord Canning (1856-1862), the inaugural Viceroy of India, oversaw the pivotal events of the Revolt of 1857 and the enactment of the 1858 Act, marking the conclusion of the East India Company’s rule.
• Lord Elgin I (1862-1863) presided over the Afghan War of succession and witnessed the Wahabi Movement during his tenure.
• Lord Mayo (1869-1872) introduced Financial Decentralisation and initiated the first provincial settlement in 1870.
• Lord Ripon (1880-1884) implemented the First Factory Act in 1881 to enhance labor conditions and established the Hunter Commission for education reforms in 1882.
• Lord Dufferin (1884-1888) saw the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885 as a major event.
• Lord Lansdowne (1888-1894) appointed the Durand Commission to delineate the line between British India and Afghanistan.
• Lord Curzon (1899-1905) partitioned Bengal in 1905, established the Universities Commission, and passed the Indian Universities Act of 1904. A Police Commission was appointed in 1902 under Andrew Frazer.
• Lord Minto II (1905-1910) witnessed the Swadeshi Movement, Congress split (1907), Morley-Minto Reforms 1909, and the foundation of the Muslim League (1906).
• Lord Hardinge II (1910-1916) annulled the partition of Bengal, relocated the capital from Calcutta to Delhi, and organized the Durbar in Delhi for the coronation of George V.
• Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921) oversaw significant events like Montague’s August declaration (1917), Repressive Rowlatt Acts (1919), Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919), Saddler Commission of Education in 1917, and the Khilafat Movement and Non-cooperation Movement.
• Lord Reading (Viceroy) (1921-1926) witnessed various events, including the simultaneous examination for the Indian Civil Service (ICS) in England and India.
• Lord Irwin (1926-1931) oversaw the announcement of the Simon Commission in 1927, the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930, the Dandi March on March 12, 1930, and the First Round Table Conference in 1930, alongside the Gandhi-Irwin talks.
• Lord Irwin’s (1926-1931) era witnessed significant events such as the announcement of the Simon Commission in 1927, the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930, the Dandi March on March 12, 1930, and the First Round Table Conference in 1930, along with the Gandhi-Irwin talks and the signing of the Pact on March 5, 1931.
• Lord Willingdon (1931-1936) navigated through events like the Civil Disobedience Movement, the Second Round Table Conference in November 1931, the announcement of the Communal Award in 1932, and the Third Round Table Conference in 1932.
• Lord Linlithgow’s (1936-1943) tenure saw the foundation of the Forward Bloc in 1939, the Deliverance Day by the Muslim League in 1939, the August Offer in 1940, the Cripps Mission in 1942, and the Quit India Movement in 1942.
• Lord Wavell (1944-1947) oversaw the end of World War II in 1945, the Indian National Army (INA) trials, the Naval mutiny in 1946, the Cabinet Mission in 1946, and the acceptance of its proposals by the Congress. Additionally, the Direct Action Day by the Muslim League on August 16, 1946, marked a crucial event.
• Lord Mountbatten, the first Governor-General of free India, facilitated the accession of Kashmir to India in October 1947. He announced the 3rd June 1947 plan and appointed two boundary commissions under Sir Radcliffe.
• C. Rajagopalachari (June 1948-1950) served as the last Governor-General of free India and the only Indian Governor-General during this period.

Growth of Modern Education and Press in India

• In 1781, Warren Hastings established the Calcutta-Madras for the study of Persian and Arabic.
• The Charter Act of 1813 allocated one lakh of rupees annually to revive literature, encourage learned natives, and promote knowledge of science in the British territories of India.
• Sir Charles Wood’s Despatch on Education in 1854 is hailed as the Magna Carta of English Education in India, emphasizing the government’s aim to impart Western Education. The establishment of the Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay Universities followed in 1857, as noted in

UPSC 2018

Q. Regarding Wood’s Despatch, which of the following statements are true?

1. Grants-in-Aid system was introduced.

2. Establishment of universities was recommended.

3. English as a medium of instruction at all levels of education was recommended.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

1. 1 and 2 only

2. 2 and 3 only

3. 1 and 3 only

4. 1, 2 and 3

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 1 : 1 and 2 only

• In 1854, Charles Wood drafted a Despatch outlining an educational system for India, heralded as the “Magna Carta of English Education in India.”

This Despatch marked the inaugural comprehensive plan for the proliferation of education across India.

• Several key provisions of the Charles Wood Despatch included:
• Urging the Government of India to take responsibility for mass education, rejecting the ‘downward filtration theory,’ at least in principle.
• Establishing a structured hierarchy, starting with vernacular primary schools in villages, followed by Anglo-Vernacular High Schools, affiliated colleges at the district level, and universities in the presidency towns of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras.
• Advocating for a system of grants-in-aid to incentivize private enterprise, making statement 1 accurate.
• Recommending English as the medium of instruction for higher studies and vernacular languages at the school level, making statement 3 inaccurate.
• According to the Despatch, the proposal endorsed the creation of universities in the three Presidency towns—Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras. These institutions were envisioned to mirror the structure of the London University, featuring a senate comprised of a Chancellor, a Vice-Chancellor, and fellows appointed by the Government. Therefore, statement 2 is accurate.
• The educational objective outlined in Wood’s dispatch of 1854 was to introduce scientific research and rationalism into traditional Indian education, as stated in 
• Macaulay’s Minutes of 1835 laid the foundation for the Modern Educational System in India, as indicated in
• The Hunter Education Commission of 1882-1883 focused on presenting the state of elementary education across the Indian empire.
• The Indian Universities Act of 1904 increased university control over private colleges, setting stringent conditions for affiliation and requiring periodical inspection by the Syndicate. Private colleges had to maintain a proper standard of efficiency.
• The Saddler University Commission of 1917-1919 recommended a twelve-year school course. After the intermediate examination, students were advised to enter the university for a three-year degree course, rather than pursuing the matriculation course.
• The Wardha Scheme of Basic Education, emphasizing learning through activity, had its details worked out by the Zakir Hussain Committee. The committee prepared detailed syllabi for various crafts and offered suggestions on teacher training, supervision, examination, and administration.
• The Sargent Plan of Education proposed the establishment of elementary schools and high schools (junior and senior basic schools), introducing universal free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14, according to 
• The Portuguese introduced the first printing press to India, and in 1557, the Jesuits of Goa published the first book. Lord Macaulay advocated for a Free Press in India.
• The Licensing Act of 1857 prohibited the operation of a printing press without government-issued licenses, granting discretionary power to the government for license approval or revocation.
• The Vernacular Press Act of 1878, also known as the Gagging Act, was enacted by Lord Lytton. This information is highlighted in
• The Indian Press Act of 1910 aimed to strengthen government control, reviving unfavorable aspects from Lord Lytton’s Press Act of 1878.
• In 1931, the government introduced the Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act, granting extensive powers to provincial governments to suppress propaganda for the Civil Disobedience Movement. The Press Act of 1931 was expanded through the Criminal Amendment Act of 1932.
• The Press Enquiry Committee of 1948 recommended the repeal of the Indian Press Emergency Powers Act of 1931, amendments to the Press and Registration of Books Act, and modifications to Section 124 (A).

Indian National Movement

The Revolt of 1857

• The Subsidiary Alliance System, initially introduced by French Governor Dupleix, found widespread application under Lord Wellesley in 1798.
• Under the Subsidiary Alliance System, the British committed to safeguarding Indian rulers from external threats and internal disorder. The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to enter into a Subsidiary Alliance with the English in 1798.
• The Doctrine of Lapse, an annexation policy devised by the British and implemented by Lord Dalhousie, led to the annexation of Satara (1848), Jaitpur (1849), Sambalpur (1849), and others.
• Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), and Nagpur (1854) were among the territories annexed through the Doctrine of Lapse.
• The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, led the Revolt in Delhi and was proclaimed the Emperor of Hindustan.
• Nana Sahib, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, inherited the title and estate of the late Peshwa.
• Rani Lakshmi Bai, the childless widow of Jhansi’s ruler Gangadhar Rao, was denied permission by British authorities to adopt a successor following her husband’s death in 1853.
• Dalhousie annexed her territory under the Doctrine of Lapse.
• General Bakht Khan virtually led the sepoy forces, while Mirza Zaheru-ud-din or Mirza Mughal, the eldest son of the emperor, remained the Commander in Chief.
• Kunwar Singh, known as the Lion of Bihar, organized the Revolt in Bihar as a ruined Zamindar of Jagdishpur near Arrah.
• Delhi was recaptured on September 20, 1857, by John Nicholson, and Kanpur was retaken on December 6, 1857, by Colin Campbell during the suppression of the Revolt.
• Colin Campbell reclaimed Lucknow on March 21, 1858, and Jhansi was recaptured by Hugh Rose.
• In Arrah, William Taylor and Eyre successfully suppressed the revolt.
• The Queen’s Proclamation of 1858 promised benevolence, religious toleration, disclaimed territorial expansion desires, and committed to respecting the dignity and honor of native princes in India.
• As per UPSC 2014 records, the Government of India Act, 1858, marked the British Crown’s assumption of sovereignty over India from the East India Company.

Socio-Religious Reform Movements in India

• Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833) established Atmiya Sabha in Calcutta in 1815, promoting monotheism and societal reform in Hindu society.
• In 1828, Atmiya Sabha underwent a name change to Brahmo Samaj.
• The principles of Brahmo Samaj, as highlighted by UPSC 2012, included opposition to idolatry and priestly dominance, the improvement of women’s status, belief in monotheism, and the liberation of Hinduism from its flaws.

UPSC 2012

Q. Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding Brahmo Samaj?

1. It opposed idolatry.

2. It denied the need for a priestly class for interpreting religious texts.

3. It popularized the doctrine that the Vedas are infallible.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

1. 1 only

2. 1 and 2 only

3. 3 only

4. 1, 2 and 3

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

option 2 : 1 and 2 only

• Founded in Calcutta on August 20, 1828, by Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
• Embracing a monotheistic perspective within Hinduism.
• Brahmo Samaj maintained a lack of faith in any scripture as an ultimate authority.
• Rejecting the concept of incarnation.
• Advocating against caste restrictions and promoting a fusion of Eastern and Western religious attributes.
• Denouncing polytheism and idol worship, firmly opposing idolatry, thus confirming statement 1.
• Asserting the unnecessary role of a priestly class in interpreting religious texts, affirming statement 2.
• While Brahmo Samaj propagated the teachings of the Vedas, it did not assert the infallibility of the Vedas, making statement 3 incorrect.
• Raja Rommohan Roy initiated a movement to abolish Sati through his journal Sambad Kaumudi (1819).
• Sambad Kaumudi, a Bengali weekly established in 1821, and Mirat-ul-Akhbar, a Persian weekly, played key roles in disseminating Roy’s ideas.
• Debendranath Tagore assumed leadership from Raja Rammohan Roy, founding the Tattvabodhini Sabha in 1839 and publishing the Tattvabodhini Patrika.
• The Tattvabodhini Sabha merged with the Brahmo Samaj in 1859, marking a significant consolidation of these progressive movements.
• Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar introduced Western thought at the Sanskrit college, focusing his lifelong efforts on the issue of widow remarriage.
• Dadoba Pandurang established Paramhansa Sabha in 1840, the first reform organization of the 19th century in Maharashtra, with the primary objective of eliminating all caste distinctions.
• Mahadev Gobind Ranade and Dr. Atmaram Pandurang founded Prarthana Samaj.
• K. Sridharalu Naidu established Veda Samaj in Madras in 1864 under the guidance of Keshub Chandra Sen, later known as the Brahmo Samaj of Southern India in 1871.
• Swami Dayanand Saraswati founded Arya Samaj, a Militant Reform Movement, in 1875 in Bombay. The movement initiated the Suddhi Movement to reclaim Hindus converted to other religions and played a role in the growth of communalism in the 20th century.
• Swami Dayanand Saraswati criticized idolatry, polytheism, Brahmin-sponsored religious rites, and superstitious practices. He advocated social equality, women’s status improvement, denounced untouchability, caste rigidities, and promoted rationality. His famous work, Satyartha Prakash (meaning “the true exposition” in Hindi), conveyed his views.
• Swami Dayanand Saraswati also wrote Veda-Bhasya Bhumika (partly in Hindi and partly in Sanskrit) and Veda-Bhashya (in Sanskrit).
• Swami Vivekananda, a prominent Indian thinker, founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1896.
• The Theosophical Movement, founded by HP Blavatsky and Col HS Olcott in New York in 1875, saw Annie Besant join the society in England in 1889. She later came to India in 1893, becoming the society’s President after Olcott’s death in 1907 and translating the Bhagavad Gita into English.
• Swami Narayan Sect, established by Swami Sahajanand (1781-1830) in Gujarat, prioritized social unity and harmony. The sect actively promoted widow remarriage and discouraged practices such as Sati and Female Infanticide.
• The Young Bengal Movement, initiated by Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (1809-1831) and English-educated Bengal youth in Calcutta, aimed to bring about social and intellectual change.
• Dadabhai Naoroji introduced the Drain Theory, asserting that a portion of India’s national wealth was being exported to Britain without material returns. This concept was highlighted in UPSC exams in 1993 and 2012.

UPSC 1993 and 2012

Q. Consider the following statements:

The most effective contribution made by Dadabhai Naoroji to the cause of the Indian National Movement was that he

1. exposed the economic exploitation of India by the British.

2. interpreted the ancient Indian texts and restored the self- confidence of Indians.

3. stressed the need for eradication of all the social evils before anything else.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. 1 only

2. 2 and 3 only

3. 1 and 3 only

4. 1, 2 and 3

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

option 1 : 1 only

• Dadabhai Naoroji, through his book ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India,’ brought to light the economic exploitation of India by the British, validating statement 1.
• Contrary to statement 2, the restoration of self-confidence among Indians through the interpretation of ancient Indian texts was attributed to figures like Swami Dayanand and Swami Vivekananda, not Dadabhai Naoroji.
• In their pursuit of social reform, political rights, and economic regeneration, Indian liberals, including Naoroji, employed diverse measures such as educational initiatives, the establishment of a reading public sphere, the formation of political associations, petitions to the Raj administration, counter-preaching, historicism, and both upward and downward hermeneutics. Therefore, statement 3 is not accurate.
• Dadabhai Naoroji, along with progressive Parsis like Sorabjee Bengali, JB Wacha, KR Cama, and Naoroji Furdoonji, founded the Rahanumai Mazdayasanam Sabha in 1851. The association aimed at the social regeneration of Parsis, including the removal of the Purdah System, raising the age of marriage, and promoting women’s education.
• The Farazi Movement, initiated by Haji Shariatullah in East Bengal, was an orthodox Islamic movement advocating a return to the obligatory duties of Islam, such as Namaz, Zakat, Haj, and fasting during Ramzan.
• The Deoband Movement, founded in 1866 by theologians Mohammed Qasim Nanantavi and Rashid Ahmed Gangohi, sought to popularize the teachings of the Quran and Hadith and initiate Jihad against foreign rule.
• The Namdhari Movement, an offshoot of the Kuka Movement established by Balak Singh, was formally inaugurated by Balak Singh’s disciple Baba Ram Singh in 1857.
• The Singh Sabha, founded in 1875 at Amritsar under the guidance of Thakur Singh Sandhawalia and Giani Gian Singh, aimed to address religious and social issues within the Sikh community.
• The Akali Movement, an offshoot of the Singh Sabha Movement, was founded to combat corruption, especially among the Mahants. The Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee was elected in 1920 as part of this movement.
• In 1873, Jyotiba Phule established the Satyashodhak Samaj, an organization aimed at challenging the cultural and religious dominance of Brahmans.
• Dr. Ambedkar founded the All India Depressed Classes Federation in 1920, specifically for the Maharas of Maharashtra. Additionally, he initiated the Bahishkrit Bharat Movement.
• The Vaikom Satyagraha (Kerala, 1924-1925), spearheaded by TK Madhavan, K Kellapan, and Keshava Menon, marked the first organized temple entry movement for the depressed classes.

Rise of Indian Nationalism in the 19th Century

• The 19th century witnessed the destruction of Indian agriculture and handicraft industries, inflicting severe hardships on peasants, artisans, and various other classes. This adversity resulted from processes such as industrialization and the commercialization of agriculture.
• Government actions, including the enactment of Draconian laws like the Vernacular Press Act of 1878 to curtail press freedom and the seemingly discriminatory Arms Act of 1878, contributed to a rising sense of nationalism among diverse sections of society.
• The Ilbert Bill controversy revolved around the removal of disqualifications imposed on Indian magistrates regarding the trial of Europeans.

 UPSC 2013

Q. The llbert Bill controversy was related to the

1. imposition of certain restrictions to carry arms by the Indians

2. imposition of restrictions on newspapers and magazines published in Indian languages

3. removal of disqualifications imposed on the Indian magistrates with regard to the trial of the Europeans

4. removal of a duty on imported cotton cloth

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 3 : removal of disqualifications imposed on the Indian magistrates with regard to the trial of the Europeans

• The bill’s introduction sparked anger and resentment, particularly among English women and British tea and indigo planters in Bengal.
• English women contended that Bengali women lacked the respect of their male counterparts, and therefore should not be empowered to adjudicate cases involving British individuals.
• In contrast, Bengali women advocating for the bill argued that they possessed superior education and academic records compared to English women.
• Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, established in 1870 by MG Ranade, GV Joshi, SH Chiplankar, and others, played a pivotal role. In 1875, this Indian association submitted a petition to the House of Commons, urging India’s direct representation in the British Parliament.
• The Indian Association, founded in 1876 by Surendranath Banerjee in Calcutta, aimed at fostering a robust public opinion on various matters.

Struggle for Independence (First Phase; 1885-1915)

• The inception of the Congress is frequently attributed to Allan Octavian Hume, who, with the approval of Viceroy Lord Dufferin, effectively orchestrated the prominent political gathering.

• The Indian National Congress was founded by leaders of the period, often credited to Allan Octavian Hume, with the approval of Viceroy Lord Dufferin. On December 28, 1885, at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, WC Banerjee became the first President, presiding over 72 delegates from across India. Annie Besant became the first woman President, and Badruddin Tyabji was the first Muslim President of the Indian National Congress.

 UPSC  2000, 2015

Q. Consider the following statements:

1. The first woman President of the Indian National Congress was Sarojini Naidu.

2. The first Muslim President of the Indian National Congress was Badruddin Tyabji.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. 1 only

2. 2 only

3. Both 1 and 2

4. Neither 1 nor 2

Answer (Detailed Solution Below

Option 2 : 2 only

• Annie Besant: Acknowledged as the founder of the Theosophical Society in India. Attained the distinction of being the first woman President of the Indian National Congress during the 1917 Calcutta session. In 1898, played a pivotal role in establishing Central Hindu College, which later evolved into Banaras Hindu University through collaborative efforts with Madan Mohan Malviya.
• Badruddin Tyabji: First Muslim President of the Indian National Congress, presiding over the 3rd session held in Madras in 1887, confirming statement 2. Pioneered as the first Indian barrister and the initial Muslim Chief Justice of the Bombay High Court.
• Sarojini Naidu: Achieved the distinction of being the first Indian woman to serve as the President of the Indian National Congress, leading the Kanpur session in 1925. She was awarded by British “Kaiser-i-Hind medal” for her work during the plague epidemic in India.
• The Early Nationalists, who dominated the Congress from 1885 to 1905, were known as the Moderates. Their approach aimed to avoid aggression in the pursuit of independence, fearing British suppression.
• In 1905, Governor-General Lord Curzon announced the Partition of Bengal, encompassing present-day West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, Assam, and Bangladesh.
• The extremists, including Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh, led a more assertive faction within the Congress.
• The Indian Council Act of 1909, popularly known as Morley-Minto Reforms, marked the first genuine attempt to introduce a representative and popular element in India’s governance.

The Gandhian Era in India

• Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar (Gujarat), embarked on a journey to South Africa in 1893 to provide legal assistance to his client Dada Abdulla.
• During his struggle in South Africa, Gandhiji developed the technique of Satyagraha, centered on truth and non-violence.
• Gandhiji concluded his successful work in South Africa in 1914 and returned to India on January 9, 1915.
• The story of Champaran (Bihar) traces back to the early 19th century when European planters compelled cultivators into agreements that mandated the cultivation of indigo in 3/20th of their holdings (Tin-Kathia).
• The decline of indigo cultivation in India by the early 20th century was attributed to its unprofitability in the global market due to new inventions.
• In Ahmedabad in March 1918, a conflict arose between mill owners and workers concerning the plague bonus.
• In the Kheda district (1917-1918), the peasants faced severe distress as crops failed, and their appeals for the remission of land revenue were overlooked by the government. Plague, soaring prices, and drought further compounded their hardships.

Struggle of Independence (The Second Phase: 1915-1535)

• During the 1936 Congress Session in Lucknow, two significant events unfolded, leading to the reconciliation of the divided Congress. The Congress and the Muslim League reached an understanding for joint action against the British, termed the Lucknow Pact.
• Two Home Rule Leagues were founded, one by Bal Gangadhar Tilak in Poona in April 1916 and the other by Mrs. Annie Besant in Madras in September 1936. The movement aimed to secure self-government for India within the British empire.

UPSC 2013

Q. Annie Besant was

1. Responsible for starting the Home Rule Movement

2. The founder of the Theosophical Society

3. Once the President of the Indian National Congress

Select the correct statement/statements using the codes given below

1. 1 only

2. 2 and 3 only

3. 1 and 3 only

4. 1, 2 and 3

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 3 : 1 and 3 only

• The Theosophical Society was established in New York City in 1875 by Madame H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel M.S. Olcott, who drew inspiration from Indian thought and culture, making statement 2 incorrect.
• In India, the Theosophical Movement gained popularity with the election of Annie Besant (1847-1933) as its president in 1917. Annie Besant arrived in India in 1893.
• She laid the foundation for the Central Hindu College in Benaras in 1898, where instruction encompassed both Hindu religion and Western scientific subjects. The college later evolved into Benaras Hindu University in 1916.
• In September 1916, Annie Besant established her All-India Home Rule League in Madras, extending its influence across India, including Bombay city, validating option 1.
• George Arundale served as the organizing secretary, with significant contributions from B.W. Wadia and C.P. Ramaswamy Aiyar.
• Annie Besant assumed the role of the first woman president of the Indian National Congress (INC) in December 1917, affirming option 3.
• The All India Home Rule League, at the end of April 1920, changed its name to Swarajya Sabha. In February 1919, during the Viceroyalty of Lord Chelmsford, a Sedition Committee was appointed, and the Rowlatt Bills were passed.
• On April 13, a peaceful and unarmed crowd gathered in an enclosed ground (Jallianwala Bagh) for a public meeting, unaware of the ban, was brutally massacred without warning.
• The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre exposed the inhumane approach of the British, as the peaceful crowd was mercilessly killed in the firing by General Dyer without any warning. The Swadeshi Movement contributed to a split in the Indian National Congress, giving rise to Moderates and extremists.

UPSC 2015

Q. When did the Jalianwalabagh Massacre take place?

1. 13th April, 1919

2. 15th August, 1921

3. 21st April, 1922

4. 25th September, 1925

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 1 : 13th April, 1919

• The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre occurred on April 13, 1919.
• On this day, a gathering assembled in Jallianwala Bagh to protest the arrest of two leaders, Satyapal and Saiffuddin Kitchlew.
• British commander General Reginald Dyer issued orders to open fire on the assembled crowd, resulting in the tragic death of numerous innocent individuals, including women and children.
• Following this incident, Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest.
• The Congress policy of prayer and petition ultimately came to an end under the guidance of Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
• The Government of India Act of 1919 provided for a Bicameral Legislature, consisting of two houses.
• Regarding the Central Legislative Assembly and the Council of State, Muslim leaders convened the All India Khilafat Conference in September 1919 at Lucknow. This conference marked the initiation of the Khilafat Movement in India, advocating for the restoration of the Khalifa’s position.
• The Non-cooperation Movement (1920-1922) commenced in 1920 when Mahatma Gandhi renounced titles bestowed by the British. Other leaders and influential individuals followed suit by relinquishing their honorary posts and titles. In the first phase, the emphasis was on boycotting schools, colleges, law courts, and promoting the use of the Charkha. The second phase emphasized the boycott of foreign cloth, the Prince of Wales’ visit in November 1921, popularization of Charkha and Khadi, and Congress volunteers engaging in Jail Bharo.
• However, the violent attack on a local police station by enraged peasants at Chauri-Chaura in Gorakhpur district on February 5, 1922, prompted Gandhi to withdraw the Non-cooperation Movement on February 12, 1922.
• CR Das, alongside leaders like Motilal Nehru, Vithalbhai Patel, Madan Mohan Malaviya, and Jayakar, established the Swaraj Party. Formed on January 1, 1923, as the Congress Khilafat Swaraj Party.
• In 1927, the Simon Commission, led by British Lord Birkenhead, was appointed to recommend further constitutional reforms.
• The Nehru Report in 1928 advocated for Dominion Status as the next immediate step, also proposing a bicameral sovereign Parliament. Mohammed Ali Jinnah’s 14 Points, presented in March 1928, rejected the Nehru report, and the Muslim League meeting in Delhi repudiated it. Jinnah’s Fourteen Points outlined the minimum Muslim demands.
• In the Lahore Session of Congress in December 1929, Jawaharlal Nehru was elected President, marking a historic moment for the Congress.
• The Indian National Congress adopted a resolution asserting Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence) as its goal. Another resolution specified that in the Congress Constitution, the term Swaraj would henceforth signify Complete Independence.
• The Civil Disobedience Movement commenced with the Dandi March on March 12, 1931, while C. Rajagopalachari led the renowned Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha March. In November 1930, the First Round Table Conference was held in London, which the Congress chose not to attend. During this conference, Ambedkar advocated for separate electorates for the untouchables.
• The Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed on March 5, 1931. Under this agreement, Irwin agreed to release all political prisoners except those engaged in violence and conceded the right to make salt in coastal villages for personal consumption. In return, Gandhiji agreed to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement and participate in the Second Round Table Conference.
• The Second Round Table Conference occurred in London from September 7, 1931. On August 17, the Communal Award, outlining the scheme of representation for minorities and depressed classes in various elected bodies, was announced by Ramsay MacDonald, the British Prime Minister.
• The Third Round Table Conference, scheduled for London in 1932, did not see the participation of the Congress. The discussions during this conference eventually led to the enactment of the Government of India Act, 1935.
• The Poona Pact, a mutual agreement between Congress and Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, resulted in the reservation of seats for depressed classes among Hindus in Provincial Legislatures and the Central Legislature.
• Following the Poona Pact, Gandhiji initiated the All India Anti-Untouchability League and a weekly newspaper named Harijan.

Struggle for Independence (Third Phase: 1927-1939)

• The Government of India Act of 1919 introduced a Bicameral Legislature, comprising two houses—the Central Legislative Assembly and the Council of State. This replaced the previous Imperial Council at the center, which consisted of a single house.
• The Provincial elections, held in February 1937 under the New Government of India Act 1935, saw the Congress dominating the polls in most provinces.
• The August Offer, also known as the Linlithgow Offer, was a statement issued by Viceroy Linlithgow on August 8, 1940, to appease Indians by conceding some of their demands.
• In October 1940, an individual Satyagraha Civil Disobedience, led by Gandhi, was initiated as a protest against British policy.
• The August Offer fell short of meeting people’s expectations, leading the Congress to invite Gandhi to lead the movement against the British Government. Given the critical war situation, Gandhi opted for individual Satyagraha instead of Mass Civil Disobedience.
• Acharya Vinoba Bhave was chosen by Gandhiji as the first Individual Satyagrahi. On October 17, 1940, he commenced Satyagraha by delivering an anti-war speech in the village of Paunar, near Wardha. He was arrested on October 21, followed by Jawaharlal Nehru (2nd Satyagrahi), Sardar Patel, and others.
• The Cripps Mission (March-April 1942), under pressure from allies and the need to win over Indian public opinion, compelled the British to offer reconciliatory measures.
• Following the failure of the Cripps Mission, Japanese threats, and the British attitude towards Indians, the Congress, in its meeting at Gowalia Tank on August 8, 1942, passed the Quit India Resolution. Gandhiji called on the British to Quit India and declared a Do or Die movement for all Indians.
• The Quit India Movement marked the climax of the freedom struggle, representing the last and most significant mass movement with the goal of Complete Emancipation of India. Subhash Chandra Bose described it as a Non-Violent Guerilla Warfare.
• In 1944, C Rajagopalachari proposed the Rajagopalachari Formula, suggesting the appointment of a commission after the termination of the war to demarcate contiguous districts in the North-West and East of India.
• The Wavell Plan and Simla Conference, proposed by Wavell from June 14 to July 14, 1945, involved discussions and negotiations.
• The proposal included the establishment of a new Executive Council with only Indian members.
• The Shimla Conference proved unsuccessful as the Congress deemed its offer inadequate, indefinite, and unsatisfactory.
• During the first Post War Congress Session in September 1945 in Bombay, a robust resolution was adopted, expressing Congress support for the INA cause.
• Dissatisfaction quickly spread among the soldiers. The chief defence advocates during the INA trial included Bhulabhai Desai, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Jawaharlal Nehru, Asaf Ali, and Mohammed Ali Jinnah, among others.
• The Cabinet Mission (March-June 1946) comprised high-ranking members of the British Cabinet: Pethick Lawrence – Secretary of State for India, Stafford Cripps – President of the Board of Trade, and AV Alexander – First Lord of Admiralty.
• The Cabinet Mission rejected the demand for a full-fledged Pakistan encompassing all Muslim-majority areas.
• The Interim Government came into existence on September 2, 1946, following the Cabinet Mission’s proposal and was led by Jawaharlal Nehru. Initially, the Muslim League refused to join it.
• Attlee’s Declaration on February 20, 1947, by British Prime Minister Clement Attlee, conveyed the government’s definite intention to transfer power into responsible Indian hands by a date not later than June 30, 1948.
• The Mountbatten Plan (3rd June Plan) declared that power would be handed over by August 15, 1947, based on Dominion Status for India and Pakistan.
• The Indian Independence Act, 1947, outlined the Partition of India and the establishment of the two dominions (India and Pakistan) from the appointed date, August 15, 1947, and granted legislative supremacy to these dominions.

Partition of India

• All India Muslim League (AIML) was established on December 30, 1906, with the foundational efforts of Nawab Salimullah (of Dacca), Aga Khan, and Nawab Mohsin ul Mulk. The league comprised a coalition of Zamindars, ex-bureaucrats, and other upper-class Muslims.
• Advocating the Partition of Bengal, opposing the Swadeshi Movement, and advocating special safeguards for its community, along with a separate electorate for Muslims, the league took its stance.
• The inaugural session of the league took place in Karachi on December 29 and 30, 1907, with Adamjee Peerbhoy serving as its President.
• Although a prominent Congress leader, Mohammed Ali Jinnah did not join the AIML until 1913. He supported the League’s movement for a separate electorate for Muslims, a move exploited by the British to counter the rising nationalism.
• The Lucknow Pact of 1916, accepting the divisive principle of separate electorates, brought together educated Hindus and Muslims (not the masses) as separate political entities, paving the way for future communalism in Indian politics.
• The appointment of the Simon Commission (1927-1930) and subsequent Round Table Conferences in London (1930-1932) activated the Muslim League.
• The Communal Award (1932) by the British Government exacerbated the divide between Hindus and Muslims.
• In the August Offer (1940), Viceroy Linlithgow rejected the wartime national demand, citing the inability to transfer power to a body denied authority by a large and powerful minority, i.e., the Muslim League. The Cripps Mission (1942) proposed provincial discretion for independent negotiations, which was strongly objected to by the Congress.
• Jinnah’s insistence on the league’s right to nominate all Muslim members of the New Executive Council, combined with Wavell’s reluctance to sign any agreement with the Congress alone, led to the breakdown of negotiations at the Simla Conference (1945).

The Peasant Movements

• Peasant protests, movements, and revolts primarily targeted issues such as exorbitant rents, evictions, usurious practices of moneylenders, and exploitation by planters. These uprisings can be broadly categorized into five types, namely (1) Restorative (2) Religious (3) Social banditry (4) Terrorist vengeance and (5) Armed insurrection.
• The Sanyasi Rebellion (1763-1800) emerged directly in response to the escalating revenue demands and the resulting hardships faced by the peasantry. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee immortalized it through his novel Anandmath.
• Pagalpanthi Uprising (1824-1833) opposed the Permanent Settlement, with Karam Shah and later Tipu Shah as the main leaders.
• Sambhalpur Uprising (1840), led by Surendra Sai, protested British interference in the internal affairs of the Bambhalpur area. He was eventually arrested and imprisoned by the British in 1840.
• Kuka Revolt (1840) initiated in West Punjab in 1840 by Bhagat Jawahar Mal, also known as Sian Saheb.
• Moplah Uprising (1921) involved poor peasants, agricultural laborers, cultivating tenants, petty traders, and fishermen in South Malabar. Nil Darpan, a Bengali play by Dinabandhu Mitra, highlighted the peasants’ plight.
• All India Kisan Sabha, founded in Lucknow in 1936, with Swami Sahajanand Saraswati as its first President, demanded a 50% cut in revenue rents, full occupancy rights for tenants, abolition of begar, restoration of customary forest rights, and the end of Zamindari.
• Bardoli Satyagraha, led by Vallabhbhai Patel, opposed a 30% increase in existing land revenue.
• Champaran Satyagraha, led by Mahatma Gandhi, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, and Rajkumar Shukla, protested against the Tinkathia system imposed by European indigo planters.       

Tribal Uprising

• The laws imposed by the British rulers were too intricate to align with tribal customs and conventions. Pagal Panthi, a semi-religious sect, primarily consisted of members from the primitive tribes, Hajont, and Garo. The Santhal Rebellion of 1855-1856 was characterized by some of the most intense expressions of tribal sentiments and a blatant rejection of British rule. The rebellion spanned across the districts.
• In the districts of Birbhum, Singhbhum, Bankura, Hazaribagh, Bhagalpur, and Munger in Orissa (Odisha) and Bihar, the Santhal Rebellion of 1855-1856 was primarily triggered by economic factors. Led by two Santhal brothers, Siddhu and Kanhu, the rebellion saw the gathering of over ten thousand Santhals in June 1855. A divine order instructed the Santhals to break free from their oppressors, take control of the land, and establish their own government.
• The Ulgulan led by Birsa Munda in the southern region of Ranchi in 1899-1900 stands out as the most notable tribal rebellion.
• Agrarian unrest, rooted in feudal, Zamindari, or individual tenures, played a pivotal role in the religious-political movement orchestrated by Birsa. In March 1879, the Mundas, under his leadership, asserted their claim to Chotanagpur.

 UPSC 2010

Q. With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference/differences between Jagirdar and Zamindar?

1. Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police duties, whereas Zamindars were holders of

revenue rights without obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collection.

2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary and revenue rights of Zamindars were not hereditary.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

1. 1 only

2. 2 only

3. Both 1 and 2

4. Neither 1 nor 2

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : Neither 1 nor 2

• The Jagirdari system served as an administrative mechanism wherein land revenue was granted as a jagir, serving as a form of salary.
• This system had no impact on the hereditary rights of intermediaries, collectively referred to as zamindars.
• The assignment of land to Jagirdars was not hereditary; it could be transferred to other jagirs.
• Zamindars possessed hereditary rights in land and also held the privilege of collecting land revenue.
• Local judicial and police responsibilities were carried out by zamindars, while Jagirdars held land assignments in exchange for military services.
• Jagirs were allocated by the Mughal emperor to the mansabdars, who, in turn, made their own agreements for revenue collection.

Art and Culture

Indian Culture

• Aryan society was patriarchal. Kutumba was the basic social division in it. Bhakti Saints attacked rigidity, disregarded caste. The eldest male of the Kutumba was head of the family. Number of villages formed a Jana ruled by a chief called as Rajan. Concept of kingdom or state did not exist.
• The first mention of four varnas, (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra) is found in Purushasukta of tenth mandal of Rigveda.
• In later Vedic period, society was divided into Varna Vyavastha. System of Chaturashrama (division of lifespan into four stages) also existed.
• In Vedic society, women were respected, educated and were free to choose partners and Purdah or Sati was not prevalent in society. Early Vedic people worshipped natural forces and Indra, Agni, Varuna, Marut, etc were their Gods.
• But in later Vedic period a new trinity of Gods (Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva) became more powerful and Sanskrit Mantras became important part of religious functions.
• Ashoka built 84000 Stupas to commemorate life events of Buddha. The Lauriya Nandangarh edict is best preserved among all Ashokan edict.
• Famous examples of Mauryan sculpture are Sarnath, Yakshini (Didarganj).
• During Gupta period, art became more creative on Hindu Gods and Goddesses (like Lakshmi, Saraswati) portrayed. Gods images represented attributes associated with them e.g., four or eight arms. Examples of Gupta art-Dashavatara temple (Deogarh), Cave temple (Udaigiri hills), etc.
• The Allahabad Pillar Inscription is associated with Samudragupta.
• In the southern region, the Pallavas and Cholas played significant roles as patrons of art and architecture, exemplified by structures like the Kailashnath temple, Vaikunth Perumal temple, and Brihadeeswara temple.
• In the medieval period, the Indo-Islamic culture emerged with the advent of Islam, as Prophet Mohammad preached it in the seventh century AD. The five principles of Islam include Tauhid, Namaz, Roza, Zakat, and Haj.
• Sufism, within Islam, emphasizes values such as tolerance, sympathy, equality, and respect for all human beings. Key centers of Sufism include Ajmer, Nagaur, and Ajodhan, with notable saints like Muinuddin Chisti, Nizam-ud-din Auliya, and Farid-ud-din.

Music of India

• The two major systems of Indian music, Hindustani and Karnataka (Carnatic), have evolved over centuries, with more differences in practice than in theory.
• Both systems draw their basic principles from Bharata’s Natyashastra and Sarangadeva’s Sangeet Ratnakar.
• Indian music is founded on the concepts of Raga and Tala, with approximately 250 Ragas identified in the North and South. Carnatic music in the South includes well-known forms such as Varnam, Kriti, Ragamalika, Thillana, Javali, Padam, and Stokam.
• Rabindra Sangeet, created by the eminent Indian poet Rabindranath Tagore, is a blend of Hindustani music and the folk music of Bengal.
• Dhrupad, Dhamar, Khayal, Thumri, Tarana, Tappa, and Dadra are genres within Hindustani classical music. Popular ragas in Hindustani music include Bahar, Bhai Ravin, Sindhu Bhairavi, Bhimpalasi, Darbari, Desh, Megha Malhar, Todi, and Yaman.

Dances of India

• Dance in India has ancient roots, with claims of divine origins found in the Rigveda, the sacred text of the Hindus, which references Nritya (dance) and dancers. Indian dances can be categorized into main styles of classical dance, including Bharatnatyam, Kathak, Kathakali, and Manipuri, as well as other classical dances, folk dances, and tribal dances.
• Kathakali, originating in Kerala, stands out as the most refined and scientifically defined dance form, seamlessly combining music, poetry, and drama. Its origins can be traced back to the 17th century.
• Manipuri dance, hailing from the state of Manipur in North-East India, is a purely religious dance used to invoke divine blessings. King Bhagyachandra established Manipuri dance in the 17th century, and Bimbavati Devi is a renowned Manipuri dancer.
• Odissi, considered the oldest classical dance of Orissa (now Odisha), dates back to the pre-Christian era. Like many classical dances in India, Odissi has roots in the Devadasi tradition. It employs musical instruments such as the Mridangam, Ghatam, Violin, Flute, and a pair of Cymbals.

UPSC 2012

Q. Guru Debaprasad Das Awardee Durga Charan Ranbir is a teacher and performer of which of the following classical dance forms?

1. Kathak

2. Kathakali

3. Manipuri

4. Odissi

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : Odissi

• Shri Durga Charan Ranbir, born in 1951 in Kamaguru village, Orissa, stands as a prominent contemporary guru of Odissi.
• Under the guidance of legendary gurus Debaprasad Das and Pankaj Charan Das, he received his training in Odissi.
• Durga Charan Ranbir has skillfully forged a unique dance trajectory, staying true to the teachings of his mentor, Debaprasad Das.
• Renowned for his choreographies, critics have acclaimed many of his works.
• Offering Odissi training in prestigious institutions across various locations, including Cuttack, Bhubaneshwar, Kolkata, Delhi, and the US.
• Currently, he oversees his own institution, Nrutyayan, in Bhubaneswar.
• Durga Charan Ranbir has garnered numerous honors for his significant contributions to Odissi, including the Orissa Sangeet Natak Akademi Award, Orissa Samman by the Orissa Press Academy, and the Veda Vyas award of Bhanja Kala Kendra.
• Mohiniattam, a solo female dance form from Kerala, is known for its rhythmic and uninterrupted flow of body movements.
• The Kalbelia dance, a folk dance from Rajasthan, is performed by the snake charmers’ community and was recognized as part of the Intangible Heritage List by UNESCO in 2010.
• The National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama, Sangeet Natak Academy, established on January 28, 1953, plays a vital role in supporting music, dance, and drama in India.
• The National School of Drama, set up by Sangeet Natak Academy in 1959, aims to train students comprehensively in all aspects of theater. In 1989, it founded Sanskar Rang Toli for the production of plays specifically designed for children.

Architecture/Sculpture

• Characteristics of Harappan Architecture include residential houses, pillared halls, public baths, walled cities, a rectangular grid pattern, citadel structures, fortified gateways, and a meticulously planned drainage system, among other features.
• Rock-Cut Architecture bears a closer resemblance to sculptures, featuring significant structures like Chaityas (places of worship) and Viharas (monastic residences) in ancient India.

 UPSC 2013

Q. With reference to the history of Indian rock-cut architecture, consider the following statements:

1. The caves at Badami are the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India.

2. The Barabar rock-cut caves were originally made for Ajivikas by Emperor Chandragupta Maurya.

3. At ellora, caves were made for different faiths.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. 1 only

2. 2 and 3 only

3. 3 only

4. 1, 2 and 3

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 3 : 3 only

• BADAMI CAVES : Situated in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, Badami is a town renowned for its historical significance.

Constructed in the 6th century by the Chalukya Dynasty in their capital, Badami (previously known as Vatapi), the Badami Caves stand as a testament to their architectural prowess.

• The caves serve as a significant representation of Indian rock-cut architecture, particularly exemplifying the distinctive Badami Chalukya architectural style.

Within the caves, one can find a collection of Hindu and Jain temples, with a focus on dedications to Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu, and their various incarnations.

Acknowledged for their cultural and historical importance, the Badami Caves have been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

• BARABAR CAVES: Situated in the Jehanabad district of Bihar, the Barabar Caves stand as India’s oldest surviving rock-cut caves.

Emperor Ashoka is credited with the construction of these caves, a fact corroborated by the inscriptions bearing his name that are engraved on the cave walls from his reign.

Utilized by the Ajivikas, followers of the sect founded by Makkhali Gosala, the caves also feature inscriptions related to Emperor Ashoka.

• ELLORA CAVES: Nestled in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra, the Ellora Caves comprise a complex of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain monuments, forming one of the world’s largest rock-cut monastery-temple cave complexes.

The site boasts over 100 caves, all constructed during the reign of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.

Recognized for its cultural and historical significance, Ellora Caves have been honored with UNESCO’s designation as a World Heritage Site.

• The Pallavas were pioneers of Dravidian architecture, exemplified by the Rathas of Mahabalipuram. The main temple architecture styles are Nagara (Northern), Dravida (Southern), and Vesara (mixed).

  UPSC 2012

Q. With reference to the guilds (Shreni) of ancient India that played a very important role in the country’s economy, which

of the following statements is/are correct?

1. Every guild was registered with the central authority of the State and the king was the chief administrative authority on them.

2. The wages, rules of work, standards and prices were fixed by the guild.

3. The guild had judicial powers over its own members.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

1. 1 and 2 only

2. 3 only

3. 2 and 3 only

4. 1, 2 and 3

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 3 : 2 and 3 only

• Shrenis or Trade Guilds: Descriptions of trade guilds or shrenis are found in the Ramayana, Gupta period plays, and Tamil Sangam literature.
• These guilds, comprised of professionals such as jewelers, weavers, ivory carvers, and salt-makers, collaborated to regulate production quality, uphold ethical business practices, ensure fair wages and prices, sometimes adopting a cooperative approach. 
• They also governed the entry of newcomers by establishing high standards of craftsmanship and enforcing rules on apprenticeship, validating statement 2.
• Contrary to statement 1, each guild had its own chief, supported by additional functionaries, carefully selected for their roles.
• Functionaries within the guilds were subject to scrutiny, with guild members having the right to impeach and punish a chief found guilty of misconduct, confirming statement 3.
• The accuracy of statement 3 is affirmed.
• Shrenis, while not confined to a specific locality, were known to transition from one town to another over time.
• Occasionally, shrenis, particularly those of merchants and artisans, would unite in a collective entity known as the nigama, akin to a chamber of commerce and industry.
• Some nigamas included a category of exporters specializing in transporting goods over long distances, selling them at more lucrative prices than local markets.
• Shrenis, as evidenced by their records found in inscriptions throughout North and South India, were remarkably robust and stable institutions, enjoying substantial moral and social standing not only within their membership but also in broader society.
• Common features in both Northern and Southern styles include the ground plan, the arrangement of stone-carved deities, and decorative elements.
• The term Panchayatan denotes a temple construction style with four subordinate shrines on the corners and a central main shrine on the podium. 

UPSC 2014

Q. With reference to the cultural history of India, the term ‘Panchayatan’ refers to

1. an assembly of village elders

2. a religious sect

3. a style of temple construction

4. an administrative functionary

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 3 : a style of temple construction

• The Panchayatana style of temple architecture incorporates a main shrine encircled by four subsidiary shrines at distinct corners, resulting in a total of five shrines.
• The main shrine in the Panchayatana style of temple architecture is constructed on a rectangular plinth.
• Prominent sculptors in India include Dhruva Mistry, Dhanraj Bhaga, Sankho Chaudhuri, Ramkinkar Baij (the father of modernism in Indian art), G Ravinder Reddy, and Anish Kapoor (Turner Prize winner in 1991).

Indian Painting

• India’s earliest paintings emerge in the form of rock art found in locations like Bhimbetka, Pachmarhi, Raigarh, and other Palaeolithic sites, with the Bhimbetka rock shelters recognized as UNESCO world heritage sites.
• The mural paintings at Ajanta (Maharashtra) span from the 1st century BC to the 8th century AD. These frescoes depict the life of Buddha and Jataka stories. The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani, adorning the walls of the Ajanta caves, is particularly renowned and frequently illustrated.

UPSC 2017

Q. The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani is one of the most famous and oft-illustrated paintings at

1. Ajanta

2. Badami

3. Bagh

4. Ellora

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 1 : Ajanta

Notable paintings at Ajanta include:

• Depictions of Jataka stories illustrate the life of Gautama Buddha, portraying his previous lives as a bodhisattva, and more.
• Paintings of diverse Bodhisattvas in tribhanga pose within Cave 1:
• Vajrapani, symbolizes the Buddha’s power and serving as a protector and guide.
• Manjusri, a manifestation of Buddha’s wisdom.
• Padmapani (Avalokitesvara), symbolizes Buddha’s compassion.
• The portrayal of the Dying Princess in Cave 16.
• The Hamzanama paintings are sizable and created on cloth.
• Madhubani paintings, a distinct style, are practiced in the Mithila region of Bihar.
• Pattachitra refers to folk paintings originating from Odisha in Eastern India, where “Patta” signifies clothing and “Chitra” means paintings in Sanskrit.
• The Modern School of Painting in India was pioneered by Gaganendranath Tagore, Jamini Roy, Rabindranath Tagore, Raja Ravi Verma, and Amrita Sher-Gil.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q: What were the major features of the Indus Valley Civilization?

• Urban planning with well-organized streets and drainage systems.
• Advanced knowledge of metallurgy, evidenced by artifacts like bronze tools.
• Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro as prominent centers of the civilization.
• Extensive trade networks with regions like Mesopotamia.
• Disappearance around 1900 BCE with uncertain reasons.

Q: Who were the key figures in the Maurya Empire?

• Chandragupta Maurya, the founder, established the empire around 322 BCE.
• Bindusara, Chandragupta’s son, expanded the empire to its zenith.
• Ashoka, grandson of Chandragupta, is known for his conversion to Buddhism.
• Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador, documented Mauryan society in his works.
• The decline of the Maurya Empire after Ashoka’s rule.

Q: What were the causes and consequences of the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857?

• Causes: Greased cartridges, cultural insensitivity, economic grievances.
• Immediate consequences: British suppression, and dissolution of the East India Company.
• Long-term consequences: Transfer of power to the British Crown, end of Mughal rule.
• Impact on Indian society: Rise of nationalism and the Indian National Congress.

Q: Discuss the major events leading to India’s independence in 1947.

• Formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885.
• Jallianwala Bagh massacre in 1919.
• Non-cooperation movement led by Mahatma Gandhi in the 1920s.
• Quit India Movement in 1942, marked by mass protests.
• Mountbatten Plan and Partition led to the creation of India and Pakistan.

Q: What characterized the socio-religious movements in the 19th century?

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s efforts for social reform and the abolition of Sati.
• Arya Samaj’s emphasis on Vedic principles and opposition to idol worship.
• Brahmo Samaj’s focus on monotheism and social equality.
• Aligarh Movement by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan for the educational upliftment of Muslims.
• The Theosophical Society promotes spiritual understanding and unity.

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