The conquest of Punjab represents a pivotal chapter in the annals of South Asian history, marked by a series of significant events that shaped the region’s destiny. Historically, Punjab has been a melting pot of diverse cultures, religions, and civilizations, making it a coveted territory for various empires and rulers. One of the most renowned conquests of Punjab occurred during the 19th century under the British East India Company. The Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845-1849) were instrumental in the annexation of the Sikh Empire’s territories, bringing Punjab under British control. The battles, including the decisive Battle of Gujrat in 1849, witnessed the clash of military prowess and strategic maneuvering. The annexation of Punjab had far-reaching consequences, transforming the agrarian landscape and introducing administrative reforms that left an indelible imprint on the region. The conquest of Punjab not only altered geopolitical dynamics in South Asia but also set the stage for the subsequent struggles for independence and the eventual formation of modern-day India and Pakistan.
Conquest of Punjab
Consolidation of Punjab under the Sikhs
- After the death of Guru Govind Singh, a faction of Sikhs led by Banda Bahadur rebelled against the Mughals during the rule of Bahadur Shah. However, they were eventually defeated and Banda Bahadur was executed in 1716. This led to a period of disunity among the Sikhs, with the formation of two groups known as the Bandai (liberal) and Tat Khalsa (Orthodox). The rift between these groups was resolved in 1721 under the influence of Bhai Mani Singh.
- In 1784, Kapur Singh Faizullapuria organized the Sikhs under the Dal Khalsa, to unite Sikh followers politically, culturally, and economically. The Dal Khalsa consisted of two sections: the Budha Dal, which was the army of the veterans, and the Taruna Dal, which was the army of the young. The weakened state of the Mughal Empire and the invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali created a state of confusion and anarchy in Punjab. These political conditions favored the organized Dal Khalsa in further consolidating its power.
- The Sikhs formed misls, which were military brotherhoods with a democratic structure. The word “misl” means equal or alike in Arabic, and it also carries the meaning of “state.” Between 1763 and 1773, several misls emerged and ruled over different parts of the Punjab region, with Sikh chieftains leading them. The misls extended their control from Saharanpur in the east to Attock in the west, and from the northern mountainous regions to Multan in the south. This period of misl rule marked a significant consolidation of Sikh power in Punjab.
Sukarchakiya Misl and Ranjit Singh
- At the time of Ranjit Singh’s birth, there were 12 important misls (military brotherhoods) in Punjab. These misls included Ahluwaliya, Bhangi, Dallewalia, Faizullapuria, Kanhaiya, Krorasinghia, Nakkai, Nishaniya, Phulakiya, Ramgarhiya, Sukharchakiya, and Shaheed. Each misl had its central administration based on Gurumatta Sangh, which encompassed political, social, and economic systems.
- Ranjit Singh was the son of Mahan Singh, the leader of the Sukarchakiya misl. When Mahan Singh passed away when Ranjit Singh was only 12 years old, Ranjit Singh displayed early political acumen. During the late 18th century, most of the important misls, except for the Sukarchakiya, were experiencing disintegration. Meanwhile, Afghanistan was embroiled in a civil war that lasted for the next three decades. Ranjit Singh took advantage of these circumstances and implemented a policy of “blood and iron,” ruthlessly expanding his influence and establishing a kingdom in central Punjab.
- In 1799, Ranjit Singh was appointed as the governor of Lahore by Zaman Shah, the ruler of Afghanistan. By 1805, Ranjit Singh had acquired Jammu and Amritsar, bringing both the political capital (Lahore) and religious capital (Amritsar) of Punjab under his rule. He also maintained good relations with the Dogras and the Nepalese, enlisting them in his army.
Ranjit Singh and the English
- In the early 19th century, the English became concerned about the possibility of a joint Franco-Russian invasion of India through the land route. To address this, Lord Minto, the Governor-General of India, dispatched Charles Metcalfe to Lahore in 1807 to negotiate with Ranjit Singh.
- Ranjit Singh, recognizing the threat and seeking to secure his position, offered to enter into an offensive and defensive alliance with the English. He proposed that in the event of a Sikh-Afghan war, the English would remain neutral, and he would be recognized as the sovereign ruler of the entire Punjab, including the Malwa territories. However, the negotiations between Ranjit Singh and Metcalfe did not succeed.
- As the political situation changed and the threat of a Napoleonic invasion subsided, the English became more assertive. In this context, Ranjit Singh eventually agreed to sign the Treaty of Amritsar with the East India Company on April 25, 1809. The treaty established a formal alliance between the English and Ranjit Singh, recognizing him as the ruler of the Punjab. This treaty marked a significant turning point in the relationship between Ranjit Singh and the English, setting the stage for further interactions and collaborations in the future.
Treaty of Amritsar
- After the Treaty of Amritsar in 1809, Ranjit Singh focused his efforts on expanding his empire towards the West. He successfully captured Multan in 1818, Kashmir in 1819, and Peshawar in 1834. However, his ambitions to extend his rule over the entire Sikh nation were curtailed by accepting the river Sutlej as the boundary between his dominions and the British Company’s territories.
- In 1838, Ranjit Singh was compelled to sign the Tripartite Treaty with the English due to political pressures. However, he refused to provide passage for the British army through his territories to attack Dost Mohammad, the Afghan Amir. During his rule, Ranjit Singh’s relations with the British Company demonstrated his weak position. Despite being aware of his vulnerabilities, he did not take steps to organize a coalition of Indian princes or maintain a balance of power.
- Ranjit Singh’s death in June 1839 marked the beginning of the decline of his empire. His only legitimate son and successor, Kharak Singh, proved to be inefficient, and court factions emerged during his brief reign. The deaths of Kharak Singh and his son, Prince Nav Nihal Singh, created an anarchic situation in Punjab, with various groups vying for the throne. The army, which was the pillar of the Sikh state, appeared stronger than it actually was. Many of Ranjit Singh’s capable generals had already passed away, and discontent among the troops grew due to irregular payment and the appointment of unworthy officers.
- The Lahore government, continuing its policy of friendship with the British Company, allowed their troops to pass through Punjab twice: once when they were fleeing from Afghanistan and again when they were marching back to avenge their defeat. These marches resulted in disturbances and economic disruption in Punjab, further destabilizing the region. The chaotic circumstances provided an opportunity for decisive action by the British, setting the stage for their intervention in Punjab.
Rani Jindal and Daleep Singh
- After the death of Nav Nihal Singh, Sher Singh ascended the throne but was assassinated in late 1843. Following his death, Daleep Singh, a minor son of Ranjit Singh, was declared the Maharaja, with Rani Jindan acting as regent. Hira Singh Dogra was appointed as the wazir (chief minister). However, Hira Singh became a victim of court intrigue and was murdered in 1844.
- Jawahar Singh, the brother of Rani Jindan, took over as the new wazir, but he quickly fell out of favor with the army. In 1845, he was deposed and executed. Lal Singh, who was a supporter of Rani Jindan, managed to win the support of the army and became the new wazir. Teja Singh was appointed as the commander of the Sikh forces during the same year.
- These political events and power struggles within the Sikh court added to the instability and chaos in Punjab, paving the way for further interference and intervention by external powers, particularly the British.
First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46)
Causes
- The outbreak of the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1845-46 had several causes, which contributed to the escalating tensions between the Sikh Empire and the British. These causes can be summarized as follows:
- Anarchy in the Lahore Kingdom: After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the Sikh Empire experienced a power struggle for control between the court at Lahore and the influential Sikh army. This internal strife created a volatile situation within the kingdom and weakened the central authority.
- Suspicion among the Sikh Army: The Sikh army grew suspicious of British intentions based on previous English military campaigns. The annexation of Gwalior and Sindh in 1841, as well as the British campaign in Afghanistan in 1842, raised concerns among the Sikh soldiers about the British expanding their influence and encroaching upon Sikh territories.
- Increasing British Troop Presence: The presence of a growing number of English troops near the border of the Lahore kingdom also contributed to the tensions. The proximity of British forces raised fears among the Sikhs that the British might have aggressive intentions towards the Sikh Empire.
- While the crossing of the River Sutlej by the Sikh army in December 1845 provided a trigger for the war, it was these underlying factors that set the stage for the conflict between the Sikhs and the British.
Course of War
- The course of the First Anglo-Sikh War, which took place from December 1845 to February 1846, saw a series of battles and ultimately ended with the signing of the Treaty of Lahore on March 8, 1846. Here are the key events:
- Battles: The British forces, numbering between 20,000 to 30,000 troops, faced the Sikh army, which had approximately 50,000 men commanded by Lal Singh. The treachery of Lal Singh and Teja Singh, who switched sides, resulted in five successive defeats for the Sikhs. These battles took place at Mudki (December 18, 1845), Ferozeshah (December 21-22, 1845), Buddelwal, Aliwal (January 28, 1846), and Sobraon (February 10, 1846).
- Fall of Lahore: After their defeat at Sobraon, the Sikhs were unable to mount a significant defense, and the city of Lahore fell to the British forces on February 20, 1846, without resistance.
Treaty of Lahore
The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Lahore on March 8, 1846. The main provisions of the treaty included:
- The Sikhs were required to pay a war indemnity of over 1 crore of rupees to the English.
- The Jalandhar Doab, the region between the Beas and the Sutlej rivers, was annexed to the British dominions.
- A British resident, Henry Lawrence, was to be established at Lahore to oversee British interests.
- The size of the Sikh army was reduced.
- Daleep Singh was recognized as the ruler, with Rani Jindan serving as regent and Lal Singh as wazir.
- Additionally, due to the Sikhs’ inability to pay the entire war indemnity, Kashmir, including Jammu, was sold to Gulab Singh. Gulab Singh was required to pay 75 lakh rupees to the British Company as the price, and the transfer of Kashmir to Gulab Singh was formalized by a separate treaty on March 16, 1846.
Treaty of Bhairowal
- The Sikhs expressed their discontent with the Treaty of Lahore concerning the Kashmir matter and consequently initiated a rebellion. In December 1846, the Treaty of Bhairowal was established as a resolution. Under this agreement, Rani Jindan was dismissed from her role as regent, and a regency council was established for Punjab. This council comprised 8 Sikh sardars, with the English Resident, Henry Lawrence, acting as the presiding authority.
Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49)
Causes
- The Second Anglo-Sikh War took place from 1848 to 1849. Several causes led to this conflict. The Sikhs felt deeply humiliated by their defeat in the first Anglo-Sikh War and the terms outlined in the treaties of Lahore and Bhairowal. Additionally, the mistreatment of Rani Jindan, who was sent to Benares as a pensioner, further fueled the Sikhs’ resentment. Another factor was the replacement of Mulraj, the governor of Multan, due to a disagreement over the increase in annual revenue. In response, Mulraj rebelled and killed two English officers who accompanied the new governor. Sher Singh, who was sent to suppress the revolt, instead joined forces with Mulraj, sparking a widespread uprising in Multan. This event can be seen as the immediate trigger for the war. Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India at the time, who had expansionist ambitions, used this opportunity as a pretext to fully annex Punjab.
Course of War
- After Lord Dalhousie arrived in Punjab, the course of the war unfolded with three significant battles that took place before the final annexation of Punjab. These battles were as follows:
- The Battle of Ramnagar: This battle was led by Sir Hugh Gough, who served as the commander-in-chief of the East India Company. The engagement occurred at Ramnagar.
- The Battle of Chillianwala: Taking place in January 1849, this battle marked another major confrontation during the war.
- The Battle of Gujarat: On February 21, 1849, the Battle of Gujarat took place. The Sikh army eventually surrendered at Rawalpindi, while their Afghan allies were expelled from India. Gujarat, a small town situated on the banks of the River Jhelum, served as the location for this significant battle.
- Following these battles, the Sikh army’s surrender and the expulsion of their Afghan allies solidified the annexation of Punjab.
Result
At the end of the war came:
- The Sikh army, led by Sher Singh, surrendered in 1849.
- Punjab was annexed by the British.
- Lord Dalhousie, for his role in the war, received the gratitude of the British Parliament and was promoted in the peerage, becoming the Marquess of Dalhousie.
- A three-member board was established to govern Punjab, consisting of the Lawrence brothers, Henry and John, along with Charles Mansel. They held governing authority over the region.
- In 1853, the board was abolished, and Punjab was placed under the administration of a chief commissioner.
- John Lawrence assumed the position of the first chief commissioner of Punjab.
- The Anglo-Sikh Wars hold significant historical importance for several reasons:
- Mutual Respect: The wars instilled mutual respect between the British and Sikhs for each other’s military prowess. This led to Sikhs fighting alongside the British in subsequent conflicts, such as the Revolt of 1857 (Indian Rebellion) and various campaigns until India gained independence in 1947.
- Extension of British Paramountcy: The wars played a part in the broader process of British expansion and consolidation of their paramountcy (supreme authority) in India. The East India Company employed both military conquest and diplomatic/administrative policies to expand its dominion over various Indian powers. The defeat and subjugation of significant Indian entities like Bengal, Mysore, the Marathas, and the Sikhs contributed to the expansion of British control.
- Administrative Policies: The Company’s administrative policies and diplomatic strategies were instrumental in its imperial ambitions. Examples include Warren Hastings’ “ring-fence” policy, which aimed to create buffer zones for defense, and the system of “subsidiary alliance” implemented by Wellesley, which reduced Indian states to dependencies on the British government. These policies were employed to further extend British influence and control over Indian territories.
- Overall, the Anglo-Sikh Wars not only shaped the relationship between the British and Sikhs but also played a role in the broader expansion of British power in India through military conquest and diplomatic maneuvering.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Q1: What was the Conquest of Punjab?
A1: The Conquest of Punjab refers to the series of military campaigns and annexations by the British East India Company and later the British Crown in the 19th century. It aimed to bring the region of Punjab, located in northwest India, under British control.
Q2: When did the Conquest of Punjab take place?
A2: The Conquest of Punjab occurred primarily during the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1848-49 and culminated with the annexation of Punjab by the British in 1849. The conflict followed tensions between the Sikh Empire and the British East India Company.
Q3: What were the consequences of the Conquest of Punjab?
A3: The Conquest of Punjab had significant consequences. The region was incorporated into British India, marking the end of Sikh rule. The annexation of Punjab played a crucial role in the consolidation of British power on the Indian subcontinent, leading to the establishment of the British Raj. It also contributed to the Indian Rebellion of 1857 as resentment against British rule grew across various regions.
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