Women’s movements have played a pivotal role in reshaping societal norms, advocating for gender equality, and challenging systemic injustices both before and after India’s independence. Pre-independence, women’s movements were marked by pioneering figures who fought against discriminatory practices and campaigned for women’s rights, often within the broader context of the struggle for independence from colonial rule. Post-independence, these movements evolved to address new challenges and opportunities, focusing on issues such as political representation, economic empowerment, reproductive rights, and combating violence against women. Despite facing numerous obstacles, women’s movements have persistently pushed for progress, fostering a more inclusive and equitable society for women in India.
Women’s movements
- The Indian women’s movement has its origins in the 19th century when male social reformers began addressing issues related to women and established women’s organizations. Women began forming their own organizations at the local and national levels towards the end of the 19th century. Prior to India’s independence, their primary concerns were political rights and the reform of personal laws.
- Women’s involvement in the struggle for independence expanded the scope of the women’s movement. After India gained independence, numerous independent women’s groups emerged, challenging male dominance and addressing various issues such as violence against women and increased representation in political decision-making. This activism occurred both at the grassroots level and in academic circles.
Timeline of Women’s Movements in India
- In contrast to the women’s movement in the Western world, the Indian women’s movement had its beginnings during the period of colonial rule and was closely tied to the struggle for independence from colonial rulers.
- The quest for independence and the fight against colonial rule were closely intertwined with the awareness and activism of the Indian women’s movement. This movement was characterized by a consciousness among women about their role in society, which extended beyond their relationships with men to encompass broader societal concerns.
- During the 19th century, the initial efforts to reform the living conditions of Indian women were primarily led by Western-educated men from the middle and upper classes. Over time, women from their own families joined in these reform efforts.
- Together, both men and women initiated organized movements aimed at challenging oppressive social practices like female infanticide, sati (widow self-immolation), child marriage, and laws that prohibited widow remarriage. These movements sought to bring about positive changes for women in Indian society.
- In the early 20th century, the active involvement of women from middle and high castes and classes played a significant role in the formation of women’s organizations. These organizations focused on advocating for women’s rights and status, with their efforts firmly aligned with the broader goals of the Indian freedom struggle.
- Simultaneously, another dimension of the women’s movement began to take shape. This aspect was influenced by Left-leaning ideologies and found its roots in activities among working-class women.
- Women who embraced Leftist political perspectives were engaged in the labor movement and participated in revolutionary peasant struggles, like the one in Telangana.
- The late 1960s and early 1970s marked a resurgence of the women’s movement in India. This resurgence was influenced by national issues like rising prices and women’s active participation in international movements. The struggle against the state of Emergency in India led to the emergence of new women’s groups that rejected the politics of earlier women’s organizations.
- These new groups initially formed as part of the broader movement for democracy and against gender discrimination. They later evolved into autonomous organizations without explicit party affiliations, although many of their members came from political parties.
Their primary goal was to raise feminist issues within mass organizations such as trade unions or farmers’ associations.
- Additionally, a number of women-only groups were formed, which did not have party affiliations or traditional hierarchical structures and primarily addressed domestic issues like domestic violence.
- During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the women’s movements in India were primarily led by autonomous women’s groups, which were predominantly located in urban areas. However, during the same period, there was also a growing feminist consciousness within some of the rural movements in the country
Pre-Independence Women’s Movements
- The Indian women’s movement has its origins in the early 19th century when social reformers like Ram Mohan Roy started addressing issues related to women. These reformers made improving the status of women a primary goal of the broader Indian social reform movement. They highlighted problems such as women’s low social standing, enforced seclusion, early marriages, the plight of widows, and lack of access to education.
- The women’s movement in India is closely connected to both the social reform movements and the struggle for independence from colonial rule.
Socio-Religious Reform Movements
Women’s Organizations Started by Men:
- Brahmo Samaj:established in 1825 by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the organization aimed to eliminate various restrictions and biases against women. These included practices like child marriage, polygamy, and limited property inheritance rights for women. The organization believed that education was a crucial factor in improving women’s status. Raja Ram Mohan Roy also played a significant role in the abolition of the practice of Sati.
- Prarthana Samaj:Established in 1867 by MG Ranade and RG Bhandarkar, this organization had goals similar to the Brahmo Samaj but operated primarily in western India. Justice Ranade expressed criticism of practices such as child marriage, polygamy, limitations on widow remarriage, and the lack of access to education for women.
- Arya Samaj: Established in 1875 by Dayanand Saraswati, this organization advocated for reforms in the caste system, mandatory education for both men and women, legal prohibition of child marriage, and the remarriage of child widows.
- Social reformers such as Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, Jyotirao Phule, and Lokhitwadi Gopal Hari Deshmukh played significant roles in promoting women’s education and encouraging widow remarriage.
- Syed Ahmad Khan and Sheikh Abdullah in Aligarh, as well as Karmat Hussain in Lucknow, led movements to enhance women’s education.
- Visionaries like Dadabhai Naroji, K.R. Cama, and others led efforts to improve the status of Parsi women by abolishing the purdah system, increasing the marriage age, and promoting education.
- The organizations led by men played a valuable role in educating women and introducing them to public work. However, they did not prioritize gender equality as an agenda in any of the movements mentioned earlier. Their focus was primarily on changing women’s roles within the family through education.
Women’s Organization Started by Women
Towards the end of the 19th century, some women from reformed families began to establish their own organizations.
- One of the early pioneers in this regard was Swarnakumari Devi, the daughter of Devendranath Tagore, a Brahmo leader, and the sister of the renowned poet Rabindranath Tagore. In 1882, she established the Ladies Society in Calcutta with the aim of providing education and vocational skills to widows and underprivileged women, enabling them to achieve economic self-reliance. Swarnakumari Devi also served as the editor of a women’s journal called “Bharati,” making her the first Indian woman to hold such a position.
- In 1882, Ramabai Saraswati established the Arya Mahila Samaj in Pune. She also initiated the Sharda Sadan in Bombay a few years later.
- In 1910, Sarala Devi Chaudhurani, the daughter of Swarnakumari Devi, established the Bharat Stree Mandal (Great Circle of India Women). Its aim was to unite women from all castes, creeds, classes, and parties based on their shared interest in the moral and material progress of Indian women.
National Freedom Movement
- During the time when women’s organizations were working to secure women’s political and economic rights and improve their status through education and social reforms, a new phase of the women’s struggle began with the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi in Indian politics.
- Women had been involved in the freedom struggle even before this. In 1887, the National Conference was established during the third session of the Indian National Congress to provide a platform for discussing social issues.
- The Bharat Mahila Parishad was the women’s wing of this conference and was founded in 1905. It focused on issues like child marriage, the condition of widows, dowry, and other harmful customs.
- These women had also attended Indian National Congress sessions and participated in movements like the Swadeshi movement in Bengal from 1905 to 1911 and the Home Rule Movement.
- During the time when women’s organizations were working to secure women’s political and economic rights and improve their status through education and social reforms, a new phase of the women’s struggle began with the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi in Indian politics. Women had been involved in the freedom struggle even before this.
- In 1887, the National Conference was established during the third session of the Indian National Congress to provide a platform for discussing social issues. The Bharat Mahila Parishad was the women’s wing of this conference and was founded in 1905.
- It focused on issues like child marriage, the condition of widows, dowry, and other harmful customs. These women had also attended Indian National Congress sessions and participated in movements like the Swadeshi movement in Bengal from 1905 to 1911 and the Home Rule Movement.
- Women’s active participation in the national movement played a significant role in breaking down traditional barriers and customs. Women’s organizations also raised their voices against the social injustices they faced.
- As a result, the Indian National Congress passed a resolution on the fundamental right of equal rights for both men and women at its Karachi session in 1930.
- The declaration stated the following:
- Every citizen is equal under the law, regardless of their religion, caste, creed, or gender.
- No one can be discriminated against in matters of public employment, holding office, or pursuing a trade or profession based on their religion, caste, creed, or gender.
- The right to vote is based on universal adult suffrage, meaning all adults have the right to vote.
- Women have the right to vote, run for public office, and hold positions in the government.
- Women earned respect and recognition for their significant involvement in the freedom struggle. Their active participation transformed the lives of many women, including figures like Durgabai Deshmukh and Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya. Sarojini Naidu, who was the first woman to join the nationalist movement during the Dandi March, later became the first Indian woman to preside over the Congress. However, it’s important to note that women’s participation in the freedom movement did not give rise to a separate and autonomous women’s movement. Instead, it was an integral part of the broader anti-colonial struggle.
WOMEN IN LABOUR MOVEMENT
- In 1917, Anasuya Sarabhai took the lead in the Ahmedabad textile workers’ strike, and in 1920, she played a crucial role in establishing the Majdoor Mahajan, which was the Ahmedabad Textile Mill Workers Union. As the late 1920s approached, women’s participation in the workers’ movement became increasingly evident. Many prominent women unionists emerged, and women workers were actively organized, with a special focus on their role within the workers’ movement.
- Bombay played a central role in this progression, with Maniben Kara becoming a prominent socialist leader among railway workers. Additionally, Ushabai Dange and Parvati Bhore emerged as Communist leaders within the textile workers’ movement. During the Bombay textile mill workers’ strike of 1928-29, women took on significant leadership roles, much like their counterparts in the Calcutta strike that occurred during the same period.
Post-Independence Women’s Movements
- During the 1950s and 1960s, women’s organizations like the National Federation of Indian Women (established in 1954) and the Samajwadi Mahila Sabha (founded in 1959) were created to advocate for the rights and well-being of Indian women.
- However, these organizations faced certain shortcomings in their strategies. They struggled to mobilize and connect with everyday women and often didn’t adequately address the issues that were of real concern to them. This limited their effectiveness and the scope of their action. As a result, the situation of peasant and working-class women worsened, and only a small minority of women saw any benefits.
- After their active participation in the struggle for India’s independence, women once again retreated from public life, and discussions on women’s issues became less prominent in the public sphere. However, in the late 1970s and 1980s, there was a revival of women’s movements and the emergence of new women’s groups and organizations.
- The increasing economic difficulties faced by rural and urban women, coupled with the general agrarian and industrial workers’ movements not addressing women’s issues, resulted in the formation of separate women’s organizations across the country. These organizations aimed to organize and empower poor women for positive change. In 1972, the first women’s trade union was established in Ahmedabad, known as the Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), initiated by Ela Bhat.
EMERGENCE OF NEW ORGANIZATIONS AND APPROACHES
- New organizations like SEWA in Gujarat, the Working Women’s Forum in Tamil Nadu, and the Shramik Mahila Sanghatana in Maharashtra focused on addressing the challenges faced by women workers in the unorganized sector.
- These organizations took up the cause of women laborers, advocating for fair wages, improved working conditions, protection from exploitation, and better health and safety standards.
- Around the same time, there were women’s organizations that operated independently and were not connected to political parties or trade unions. These groups were known as “autonomous women’s organizations.” They distanced themselves from the more welfare-oriented approach taken by earlier women’s organizations, many of which were established before India’s independence.
- Instead, they embraced “protest politics” to mobilize women around specific issues. For example, the Nav Nirman movement, which began as a student movement in Gujarat to protest rising prices, black marketing, and dishonesty in 1974, was soon joined by a large number of middle-class women.
- The anti-price rise movement in 1973-74 involved women’s organizations from various political backgrounds.
Issue Based Movements in the 1970s and 1980s
- The autonomous women’s organizations focused on addressing various forms of women’s oppression, such as dowry, domestic violence, alcoholism among men, and abuse by husbands. They also addressed workplace discrimination to unite women for collective action. Some groups in cities like Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, and Patna began raising concerns about the sexual exploitation of disadvantaged women, such as those from scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, by upper-caste landlords.
- Among the earliest independent women’s groups were the Progressive Organization of Women (POW) in Hyderabad, the Forum Against Rape (now known as the Forum Against Oppression of Women), as well as Stree Sangharsh and Samata in Delhi.
Women’s organizations and civil liberties, along with democratic rights organizations, began addressing issues related to rape, dowry murders, and violence against women. They launched nationwide movements against dowry and rape to advocate for women’s rights and to combat these social issues.
1. Anti-dowry Movements
- Women’s organizations and civil rights groups have consistently campaigned against dowry-related murders. In the 1980s, they formed a collaborative group in Delhi called the “Dahej Virodhi Chetna Manch” to address this issue. Similar organizations in other major cities also conducted campaigns through protests, demonstrations, discussions, street theater, and posters to raise awareness about the horrific murders of young brides due to dowry demands.
- As a result of their efforts, the Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Act, 1984 was enacted. This law places a limit on the amount of dowry that can be given but does not completely ban dowry. It also makes cruelty by the husband and his relatives leading to suicide or death a punishable offense, carrying the penalty of imprisonment.
2. Ecological Movement
- In the Himalayan region, women faced economic difficulties as forests were being cut down. In response, they spontaneously mobilized and embraced the trees to prevent contractors from felling them. This movement is famously known as the Chipko movement. The loss of forests created severe challenges for women who rely on them for gathering fuel, fodder, fruits, medicinal herbs, and other forest products that provide income and employment. This is why women continue to play a prominent role in environmental protests in these areas.
- The Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA), led by Medha Patkar, initially began as a protest against the inadequate rehabilitation and resettlement of people displaced by the construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam. Over time, the movement shifted its attention to the conservation of the environment and the ecosystems in the Narmada valley.
3. Anti-rape Movement
- In the past decade, an anti-rape movement was initiated to challenge a Supreme Court judgment that had acquitted a rape perpetrator. Women activists pressured the government to reevaluate rape laws. Multiple women’s organizations, along with legal and social activists, engaged in discussions with the Law Commission to amend the law. As a result, in 1983, the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act was passed to bring about these changes.
FAQs
1. What were the goals of women’s movements during the pre-independence era in India?
Women’s movements before independence primarily aimed at social reforms and political rights. Key objectives included abolishing practices like child marriage and sati, promoting education for women, and advocating for women’s participation in social and political spheres. Leaders like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Sarojini Naidu were instrumental in championing these causes.
2. How did women’s movements contribute to India’s independence struggle?
Women’s movements played a crucial role in India’s independence struggle by mobilizing women across the country. They participated in protests, organized marches, and supported leaders like Mahatma Gandhi in various civil disobedience movements. Prominent figures like Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay and Aruna Asaf Ali became symbols of women’s active involvement in the freedom struggle.
3. What were the main challenges faced by women’s movements post-independence in India?
Post-independence, women’s movements faced challenges such as gender discrimination, lack of representation in politics and decision-making roles, economic disparity, and violence against women. Despite legal reforms like the Hindu Succession Act and the Dowry Prohibition Act, deep-rooted patriarchal attitudes persisted, hindering progress towards gender equality.
4. How did women’s movements evolve in the post-independence era?
In the post-independence era, women’s movements diversified their focus to address broader issues affecting women, including reproductive rights, workplace discrimination, and gender-based violence. Organizations like the All India Women’s Conference and the National Federation of Indian Women continued the struggle for women’s rights through advocacy, legal reforms, and grassroots activism.
5. What were the landmark achievements of women’s movements in post-independence India?
Women’s movements in post-independence India achieved significant milestones, such as the implementation of laws to protect women from domestic violence, the introduction of reservation for women in local governance (Panchayati Raj institutions), and the appointment of women to key leadership positions in politics, academia, and business. These achievements reflect the ongoing efforts to advance gender equality and empower women in Indian society.
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