Causes of British Success in India – UPSC Modern History Notes

The British success in India during the colonial era can be attributed to a combination of political, economic, and military factors. One key factor was the fragmented nature of the Indian subcontinent at the time. India was a mosaic of diverse states and principalities with varying degrees of unity and political cohesion. The British East India Company skillfully exploited these divisions, playing one local ruler against another and capitalizing on existing rivalries. Additionally, the British had a superior and disciplined military, equipped with advanced weaponry and tactical strategies. This military prowess allowed them to assert control over vast territories.

Economically, the British implemented policies that favored their interests, such as the extraction of resources and the establishment of a lucrative trade network. The exploitative economic system, characterized by heavy taxation and unequal trade practices, contributed significantly to British wealth at the expense of the Indian population. The introduction of a modern administrative and legal system further solidified British control, providing stability and order that, ironically, facilitated their dominance.

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Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India

The history of British imperialism can be divided into two distinct periods. The first phase, known as the “first empire,” encompassed Britain’s expansion across the Atlantic to America and the West Indies. The second phase, referred to as the “second empire,” emerged after the Peace of Paris in 1783 and involved Britain’s focus shifting towards Asia and Africa.
The British imperial history originated with the colonization of Ireland in the sixteenth century. The English saw themselves as the modern successors of the Romans, taking on the mission of civilizing what they considered to be culturally inferior peoples around the world. In this endeavor, intellectuals in Britain and Europe during the post-Enlightenment era positioned themselves as the epitome of civilization compared to the peoples of the Orient and other regions.

Was the British conquest unintentional or deliberate?

While the nature of Britain’s imperial ideology changed over time due to various spatial and situational factors, its core principles remained constant.
Historians have engaged in a long-standing debate regarding whether the British conquest of India was accidental or intentional. One viewpoint, led by John Seeley, suggests that the British acquisition of India was a result of blind and unintentional actions, almost accidental. According to this perspective, the British initially arrived in India for trade purposes and had no initial intention of acquiring territories or engaging in costly wars for expansion. They argue that the British were reluctantly drawn into the political conflicts created by the Indians themselves and felt compelled to acquire territories.
On the other hand, another group argues that the British arrived in India with a clear intention of establishing a large and powerful empire. They believe that the British had a deliberate plan, gradually executed over the years, to expand their influence and gain control over Indian territories. This viewpoint dismisses the notion of the peaceful intentions and political neutrality of the early English East India Company as mere propaganda.
However, both perspectives seem to present extreme viewpoints. It is likely that in the beginning, Company officials acquired territories primarily to protect and promote their trade interests, taking advantage of the fragmented political landscape in India. They realized the strategic benefits of manipulating local rulers and gradually interfered in local politics, leading to territorial acquisitions. However, as time progressed, British politicians in Britain and their appointed administrators in India actively pursued a desire to acquire territories and establish an empire.
The immense profits generated from trade in India, coupled with personal ambitions, greed, and geopolitical developments in Europe, played a significant role in increasing British political influence in India. They sometimes waged wars to safeguard their commercial interests and, at other times, to protect their Indian allies from potential rivals. During Lord Wellesley’s tenure, the British employed an aggressive application of the subsidiary alliance system to expand their dominion in response to the imperialistic designs of France and Russia. From 1798 to 1818, the British motives were consciously imperialistic. Lord Hastings further pursued Wellesley’s policy and treated India as a conquered rather than an acquired territory. Subsequently, the British seemed to follow a deliberate plan to conquer the entirety of India and even neighboring states.

When did the British period in India begin?

The British period in India is often debated among historians, with several proposed starting points. Some consider the beginning of the Anglo-French struggle for supremacy in India in 1740, which coincided with the War of Austrian Succession in Europe. Others point to the year 1757 when the British defeated the Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey. Alternatively, the year 1761, marked by the Third Battle of Panipat and the defeat of the Marathas by Ahmad Shah Abdali, is also seen as a potential starting point. However, these chronological landmarks are somewhat arbitrary, as the political transformation that occurred during this period took around eighty years to fully unfold.
It is important to note that interpreting this phase of Indian history solely through our present knowledge would be a mistake, as it was a complex period with multiple actors and dynamics. While thinking of 1761, for example, we may associate the British with their victory over the Nawab of Bengal and the French, but we would also need to consider the Marathas and the prospects of Haidar Ali. The circumstances under which the British succeeded are not entirely clear, and the challenges they encountered were not insurmountable. This paradox generates considerable interest in understanding the causes of the British Empire’s success in India.

The Roots of British Success in India

Over nearly a century, the British employed various diplomatic, military, and administrative tactics to expand and consolidate their power in India. They employed both warfare and administrative policies to exert control over different kingdoms and ultimately establish their rule across the entire subcontinent. The British were willing to employ unscrupulous tactics to exploit situations or regional rulers to further their interests. The causes behind their success can be attributed to a combination of factors and forces.

Superior Arms, Military and Strategy

The English possessed superior firearms, such as muskets and cannons, which had advantages over the Indian arms in terms of firing speed and range. Recognizing this, several Indian rulers began importing European weapons and hiring European officers to train their troops. However, despite these efforts, Indian military officers and ranks were unable to match the expertise and capabilities of their English counterparts. Lacking originality, the military officers and armies of Indian rulers became mere imitators.

Better Military Discipline and Regular Salary

The English East India Company established a regular system of paying salaries and implemented strict discipline among its officers and troops. This ensured their loyalty and commitment to the company’s objectives. In contrast, many Indian rulers faced financial constraints and struggled to provide regular salaries to their military personnel. The Marathas, for example, sometimes redirected their military campaigns to collect revenue to pay their troops. Additionally, Indian rulers often relied on personal retinues or groups of mercenaries who lacked discipline and could become rebellious or even switch sides when faced with challenging circumstances.

Civil Discipline and Fair Selection System

The officers and troops of the English East India Company were selected based on their reliability and skills, rather than on hereditary, caste, or clan affiliations. They were subjected to strict discipline and were well aware of the objectives of their campaigns. In contrast, Indian administrators and military officers were often appointed based on their caste and personal connections, disregarding merit and ability. As a result, their competence was questionable, and they frequently displayed tendencies of rebellion and disloyalty to further their interests.

Brilliant Leadership and Support of Second-Line Leaders

Leaders such as Clive, Warren Hastings, Elphinstone, Munro, and the Marquess of Dalhousie demonstrated exceptional qualities of leadership on the English side. Furthermore, the English had the advantage of a long list of secondary leaders like Sir Eyre Coote, Lord Lake, and Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington), who fought not just for individual leaders but for the cause and glory of their country.
On the Indian side, there were also brilliant leaders like Haidar Ali, Tipu Sultan, Chin Kulich Khan, Madhu Rao Sindhia, and Yashwant Rao Holkar. However, they often lacked a well-trained team of secondary personnel. Additionally, Indian leaders frequently found themselves in conflicts with one another, as much as they did with the British. The spirit of fighting for a united cause was not a driving force for them. As a result, they sometimes supported the British against neighboring rulers, lacking a sense of unified consciousness as ‘India’.

Strong Financial Backup

The English East India Company had a strong financial backup that allowed it to pay substantial dividends to its shareholders and finance its military operations in India. England, in general, was experiencing significant profits from its global trade, providing a vast amount of resources in terms of money, materials, and manpower that were readily available to the British when needed. This advantage was largely due to their superior sea power, allowing them to dominate international trade routes.

Nationalist Pride

In addition, the British population had a sense of nationalist pride, driven by their economic prosperity and a belief in material advancement. They took pride in their national glory, which further contributed to their success. On the other hand, Indian society was characterized by divisions and lacked a sense of unified political nationalism. The Indians were perceived as weak and divided among themselves, lacking the same materialistic vision as the British. These factors played a role in the success of the English Company in India.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q: What were the main causes of British success in India?

A: The British success in India can be attributed to several factors:

Military Superiority: The British had a well-disciplined and technologically advanced military that played a crucial role in their conquest of India.
Political Fragmentation: India was not a unified nation but a collection of princely states and territories with diverse rulers. The British exploited internal rivalries and played different factions against each other.
Economic Exploitation: The British East India Company established a strong economic presence through trade and exploitation of resources. They controlled key industries and resources, leading to economic dominance.
Technological Advancements: The British brought in superior technology, including advanced weaponry and communication systems, giving them a significant advantage over local rulers.
Strategic Alliances: The British were adept at forming alliances with local rulers who were discontented with existing power structures. This helped them gain support and consolidate power.
Naval Dominance: The British navy played a crucial role in securing their interests in India. It allowed them to control sea routes, reinforce their military, and ensure the safe transport of goods.
Administrative Efficiency: The British introduced a centralized administrative system that allowed for efficient governance. This administrative structure helped in the systematic control and exploitation of resources.
Educational and Cultural Influence: The British established educational institutions that promoted Western education and values. This created a class of Indians who identified with British culture, facilitating the British hold on power.
Social and Religious Divisions: The British often exploited existing social and religious divisions to maintain control. Policies of divide and rule were implemented to prevent unity among the Indian population.
Railways and Communication Networks: The British invested in infrastructure, particularly railways and telegraph lines, which facilitated better communication and transportation of goods and troops.

Q: Did the British face any resistance in India?

A: Yes, there was significant resistance to British rule in India:

Sepoy Mutiny (1857): Also known as the First War of Independence, it was a major uprising against the British East India Company’s rule. Though it was suppressed, it marked the beginning of a more organized resistance.
Civil Disobedience Movements: Led by figures like Mahatma Gandhi, Indians engaged in non-violent civil disobedience movements, challenging British authority and demanding independence.
Revolt of 1942: During World War II, Indians, led by leaders like Subhas Chandra Bose, demanded the British leave India. The Quit India Movement gained momentum but was eventually suppressed.
Regional Movements: Various regions, such as Bengal, Punjab, and Maharashtra, witnessed movements for linguistic and cultural rights, resisting British attempts at cultural homogenization.
Tribal Uprisings: Tribal communities in various parts of India resisted British intrusion into their traditional lands. The Santhal Rebellion and the Munda Ulgulan are examples of such uprisings.

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