Religious Movements during Medieval Period – UPSC Medieval History Notes

During the Medieval Period, religious movements played a pivotal role in shaping the spiritual, cultural, and social landscape of the time. This era, spanning roughly from the 5th to the 15th century, witnessed a myriad of religious developments that had profound effects on the beliefs and practices of societies across the globe. From the rise of powerful institutions like the Catholic Church to the emergence of diverse heretical and reformist movements, the Medieval Period was marked by a dynamic interplay of faith, ideology, and religious fervor. This introduction explores the rich tapestry of religious movements that unfolded during this historical epoch, shedding light on the complex interactions between different faiths and their influence on the medieval world.

Table of Contents

Bhakti Movement

The term ‘Bhakthi’ refers to ‘devotion’. As a movement, it emphasized on the mutual intense emotional attachment and love of a devotee toward a personal god and of the god for the devotee. This movement originated in South India in the 7th and 10th CE, mostly in the poems of Alvars and Nayanars. These poems were composed in Tamil; the poems were addressed to Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva respectively

Bhakti soon spread to North India, appearing most notably in the 10th-century Sanskrit text the Bhagavata-Purana. It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards and reached its peak between the 15th and 17th century CE. The Bhakti Saints moved against the austerities propagated by the Buddhist and Jain schools and professed that ultimate devotion to god was the means to salvation.

Reasons behind the Bhakti Movement

The movement started as a response to the evil practices that had crept into Hinduism. Some of the other reasons which fueled the spread of the movement across the country were:

The spread of Islam
Emergence of great reformers
Influence of Sufi sects
Influence of Vaishnavism and Shaivism ideologies

Common teachings associated with the Bhakti Movement

Preached equality, despite the societal divisions of religion, caste, and gender.
Emphasized universal brotherhood based on values of love, care, and affection.
Worked towards eliminating evil practices that had become entrenched in religion and society.
Focused on the path of Bhakti, rather than superficial rituals, as the means to realize god and salvation.

Schools of Thought of the Bhakti Movement

The movement developed under two different schools of thought.

• Nirgunabhakthi

They believed in formless worship
It was introduced by Adi Shankara
Some of the other Bhakti saints who preached this school of thought are- Kabir, Guru Nanak, Dadu Dayal etc

• Sagunabhakthi

It believed in the worship of form.
It is believed that god is the biggest manifestation of everything perfect
It included philosophers such as Ramanuja, Nimbaraka, Madhva, Vallabha, Meera Bhai, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Tulsidas, Surdas, etc

Shankaracharya: The Founder of Advaita Vedanta

Background

Born at Kaladi in Kerala, became a saint at the age of 5.
Disciple of Govindacharya.
Founded Ashramas/mathas at various places in India.

Contributions

Credited with the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta.
Wrote commentaries on Brahmasutras and popular works such as Vivekachudamani, Saundaryalahari, Bhajagovindam, and Shivananda Lahari.
Followers are called as Smratas.

Advaita Vedanta

The concept that the true Self is identical to Brahman, the Absolute Reality.
Jnana yoga is the path of knowledge to Moksha.
Moksha can be achieved in this life (Jivanmukthi).
Influenced and was influenced by various Hindu philosophies such as Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vedanta, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Puranas, and Agamas.

Ramanujacharya (1017-1137AD)

Birth and Teachings of Ramanujacharya

Ramanujacharya was born in Sriperumbudur and was a disciple of Yamuna Muni and Vedprakash.
He founded the philosophy called Vishishta Advaita and preached Vaishnavism, which led to his banishment by the Shaivite ruler, Kulottanga Chola.
Ramanujacharya wrote Sri Bashya and was the head of Srirangam Vaishnava Math. He was also referred to as Ilaya Perumal.
He preached that Shudras and outcastes could attain salvation by completely surrendering to the will of the guru.

What is Vishishta Advaita?

Vishishta Advaita is a non-dualistic school of Vedanta philosophy that grew out of the worship of Lord Vishnu.
It is the non-dualism of the qualified whole, in which Brahman alone exists but is characterized by multiplicity.
Unlike some Hindu philosophies, Visishtadvaita sees the material world as a part of Brahman’s nature and not simply an illusion that is separate from Brahman.\
Moksha, or spiritual liberation, is seen as the joy of contemplating Brahman, and that joy is the result of devotion, praise, worship, and contemplating the divine perfection.

Nimbaraka

As the disciple of Ramanujacharya, he introduced the Radhamadhav cult which focused on the worship of Radha and Madhav. He also founded the philosophy of Dwita Advaita, which emphasized the balance between Advaita and Visishtadvaita. In addition to this, he was a renowned astronomer and author of works such as Dashasloki and Vedanta.

According to his philosophy, human beings were confined within physical bodies that were limited by prakrti or matter. He believed that only through surrendering to Radha-Krishna, rather than through their efforts, could individuals attain the grace necessary for liberation from the cycle of rebirth. At the time of death, the physical body would then be shed.

Madhvacharya

Early Life and Background.
Born in 1238 in Pajaka, near Udupi, to Narayana Bhatta and Vedavati.
Third of the trinity of philosophers who influenced Indian thought after the ages of the Vedas and Puranas.
Born on Vijayadashami and named Vasudeva.

Philosophy and Contributions

Propounded the philosophy of Dwaita or Dualism.
Initiated into sanyasttva by Achyutapreksha and given the name Purnaprajna.
Given the title ‘Madhva’ by Achyutapreksha.
Wrote commentaries on important Hindu texts, including the Bhagavad Gita and Brahma Sutra.
Wrote texts on his philosophy, known as Tattvavada or Dvaita, including the Gita Bhashya, Brahma Sutra Bhashya, Anu Bhashya, Karma Nirnaya, and Vishnu Tattva Nirnaya.

Dvaita Philosophy

Refutes Mayavada of Sri Shankara and emphasizes that the world is real
The soul is bound to this world through ignorance
To release the soul from this bondage, one must seek the grace of Sri Hari
Bhakti is the only way to reach Sri Hari, and meditation is necessary to practice Bhakti
To meditate, one must clear the mind and attain detachment by studying sacred texts

Vallabhacharya

He was also known as ‘Achinitabhadra’.
He was the first to promote Krishna Bhakti based on Maha Bhagavad Purana.
He founded the philosophy of Shuddha Advaita which believed in absolute union.
He prescribed Pushtimarga as the means of salvation (extreme devotion to God).

Basavanna

He was a 12th-century administrator, philosopher, poet, and Lingayat saint in the Shiva-focused Bhakti movement.
He raised social awareness through his poetry, popularly known as Vachanaas.
He introduced new public institutions such as the Anubhava Mantapa (or, the “hall of spiritual experience”), which welcomed men and women from all socio-economic backgrounds to discuss spiritual and mundane questions of life, in the open.
He was a propagator of Visishtadvaita.
Basavanna’s literary works include the Vachana Sahitya in Kannada Language. He is also known as Bhaktibhandari, Basavanna, or Basaveswara.

Ramananda

A 14th Century Vaishnava Poet and Social Reformer.
Ramananda was a Vaishnava devotional poet and saint who lived in the 14th century.
He developed his philosophy and devotional themes, and evidence suggests that he was influenced by Nathpanthi ascetics of the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy.
Ramananda was an early social reformer who accepted disciples without discrimination based on gender, class, caste, or religion. Among his disciples were Kabir, Ravidas, Bhagat Pipa, and others.
Ramananda’s verses are mentioned in the Sikh scripture Adi Granth.
Some of his works include Gyan-lila and Yog-Kintamani in Hindi, Vaishnava Mata Bhajabhaskara, and Ramarcana Paddhati in Sanskrit.

Kabir (1440-1510 AD)

A 15th Century Mystic Poet and Saint.
Kabir was a 15th-century Indian mystic poet and saint whose writings influenced the Bhakti movement in Hinduism, and his verses are found in Sikhism’s scripture, Guru Granth Sahib.
He was a disciple of Ramananda and mounted a spirited attack against the superficial religious practices followed by both Hindus and Muslims.
Kabir suggested that Truth is with the person who is on the path of righteousness, who considers all creatures on earth as his self, and who is passively detached from the affairs of the world.
He was the first to reconcile Hinduism and Islam, and he believed in a formless God.
Kabir’s legacy survives and continues through the Kabir panth (“Path of Kabir”), a religious community that recognizes him as its founder and is one of the Sant Mat sects. Its members are known as Kabir panties.
Kabir wrote Sabad, Bijak, Doha, Holi, and Rekhtal, and he propagated Ram Bhakti.

Guru Nanak (1469-1538 AD)

Guru Nanak was born in Talvandi near Lahore and his birth anniversary is celebrated as Guru Nanak Gurpurab by Sikhs worldwide.
In 1496, despite being married and having a family, Guru Nanak embarked on a spiritual journey that lasted almost 30 years, traveling through India, Tibet, and Arabia.
He spent the final years of his life at Kartarpur in the Punjab, where he attracted many disciples through his teachings.
Guru Nanak’s most famous teachings include the belief in one God, accessible to all humans without the need for rituals or priests. He also spoke out against the caste system, advocating for equality among all people, regardless of caste or gender.
He introduced the concept of God as ‘Vahiguru,’ an entity that is formless, timeless, omnipresent, and invisible. Other names for God in the Sikh faith include Akaal Purkh and Nirankar.
Guru Nanak composed 974 poetic hymns, which are included in the Guru Granth Sahib, the holiest book of the Sikhs.

Mirabai

She was the most popular Bhakthi reformer.
She was born in Rajasthan.
She became the wife of Rana Bhojraj, one of the royal families in Rajasthan.
She was the first to introduce the Giridhara Gopala cult of Brindavan and also the first to introduce Bhajan in the Bhakti movement.
Her bhajans were composed in the language of Vraj Bhasha.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu

A Prominent Bhakti Reformer from Bengal
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu is considered the most popular Bhakti reformer from Bengal
He was born in Nabadwip, Bengal, and was also known as Gouranga and Vishwambar
Keshav Bharti was his guru
Chaitanya preached Vaishnavism in Bengal and Odisha, with Puri becoming the main center of his activities
He introduced Kirtans in the Bhakti movement and the form of Vaishnavism he preached came to be called “Gaudiya Vaishnavism” or “Bengal Vaishnavism.”

Tulsidas

He lived during the reign of Akbar, the Mughal emperor.
He composed the epic ‘Ramcharit Manas’ in the Avadhi language.
He established the Sankatmochan Temple in Varanasi, dedicated to Lord Hanuman, at the site where he had a vision of the deity.
Tulsidas is credited with starting the tradition of Ramlila, a folk-theater adaptation of the Ramayana.
Among his other notable works are Dohavali, Sahitya Ratna or Ratna Ramayan, Gitavali, Krishna Gitavali or Krishnavali, and Vinaya Patrika.

Dadu Dayal

He was born into the community of weavers at Ahmedabad.
He preached Nirgunabhakthi.
His teachings were compiled in the form of ‘Dadu Dayaram ki Bani’.

Shankar Dev

He was the first to preach Vaishnavism in Brahmaputra valley.
He was the founder of Eka Saranadharma and Veerapurushamarga.
He is widely credited with building on past cultural relics and devising new forms of music (Borgeet), theatrical performance (Ankia Naat, Bhaona), dance (Sattriya), literary language (Brajavali).

Purandaradasa

He was a Haridasa philosopher from Karnataka.
He is considered as the father of Carnatic music.
One of his most notable works is Dasa Sahithya.
He introduced the RagaMayamalavagowla as the first scale to be learned by beginners in the field – a practice that is still followed today.
Most of his katanas deal with social reform and pinpoint the defects in society.

Ganeshwar

He was one of the earliest Maratha reformers.
He wrote a commentary on Bhagavad Gita called as Gnaneswari, popularly known as Maratha Bhagavad Gita.
His followers are known as Varkaris.
They believe in attaining the presence of God through religious songs or Bhajans and prayers.
They worship Lord Vithoba whom they believe to be the incarnation of Lord Vishnu.

Eknath

He was one of the first reformers to emphasize the growth of the Marathi language.
He preached that one could devote oneself to God by leading a family life and discharging all functions of a householder.
His works include numerous religious songs called Abhangas, Owees, and Bharuds.

Namdev

He was a tailor by profession.
He emphasized on cultural unity of the Marathas by introducing a tradition called Mahapurusha Sampradaya.
He believed in the equality of all men and women.
He advocated the practice of devotion to realize god.
Some of his devotional songs are found in the Guru Granth Sahib.

Tukaram

He was a contemporary of Shivaji.
He is considered the greatest Maratha Bhakti reformer.
He made popular the Vithoba cult.
He composed devotional songs on Vithalswamy called Abhangs.
He preached the message of equality and universal brotherhood.

Samard Ramdas

He was guru of Shivaji.
He inspired Shivaji to founding Swaraj.
The messages were compiled in the form of the text called ‘Dasabodha’.
He was a devotee of Lord Rama. He established Ashramas all over India.

Sufi Movement

The term ‘Sufi’ comes from the Arabic word ‘Suf’ meaning wool, as the Muslim saints who wore clothing made of coarse wool were known as Sufi saints. Sufism made its way into India with Muslim invaders in the 12th century and gained popularity in the 13th century.

The central theme of Sufism was the unity of God, also known as Wahadut-ul-Wajud. The earliest development of Sufism occurred in Iraq, and the first Sufi saint was Begum Rabia of Bashera in Iraq.

Sufi orders were referred to as Silsilas, and the greatest number of orders were found in Afghanistan.

Salient features of Sufism

Sufis protested against the growing materialism of the Caliphate as a religious and political institution.
Sufism takes inspiration from Islam.
Sufis studied Vedantic philosophy and had contact with Indian sages and seers.
Sufism emphasizes leading a simple life and preaching in Arabic, Persian, and Urdu.
Sufis were divided into 12 orders under a mystic Sufi saint.
Sufi saints seek inner purity, while orthodox Muslims focus on external conduct and blind observance of rituals.
Sufis criticized dogmatic definitions and scholastic methods of interpreting the Qur’an and Sunna.
Sufis seek salvation through intense devotion and love for God by following His commands and the example of the Prophet Muhammad.
Sufis interpret the Qur’an based on personal experience.
Devotion is more important than fasting or prayer.
Sufis bridge the communal divide beyond caste, creed, and gender, as shown by the reverence of non-Muslims for Sufi saints in the Subcontinent.

Liberal outlook associated with Sufism

Sufism rejects narrow societal classifications such as caste.
Sufi saints attempted to redefine social and religious values, instilling a new sense of confidence.
Sufis stressed social welfare, establishing works of a charitable nature such as orphanages and women’s service centers.
Sufis served the poorer and downtrodden sections of society, with Nizamuddin Auliya famously distributing gifts among the needy regardless of religion or caste.
Sufi saints reminded people of their moral obligations in a world torn by strife and conflict, aiming to bring peace and harmony.
Sufism emphasizes ideas such as meditation, good actions, repentance for sins, performance of prayers and pilgrimages, fasting, charity, and suppression of passions through ascetic practices.

Sufi orders

Chisti Order

Founded by Sheikh Abdul Chisti.
Introduced in India by Sheikh Moinuddin Chisti; his Dargah is at Ajmer.
Qutubuddin Bakhtiar Kaki was Moinuddin’s chief disciple.
Iltutmush dedicated Qutub Minar to Bakhtiar Kaki.
Sheikh Nizamuddin was the most popular Sufi saint in India; Amir Khusro was his disciple.
Followed a system called Nadasampradaya which meant burying disciples near as one family.
Sheikh Salim Chisti was the last great saint of this order and was respected by Akbar.
Qamkhana were hermitages of Chisti saints outside the city.

Suhrawardi Order

Founded by Shihabuddin Shuhrawardi.
Introduced in India by Bhauddin.
The richest order soon became unpopular.

Firadausia Order

The only Sufi order was founded and developed within India.
Founded by Sharafuddin; confined to Bihar.
Sharafuddin composed Maqtubat and Mulfazat literature dealing with the lives and teachings of Sufi saints.

Qadri Order

The most secular Sufi silsila.
Founded by Sheikh Jilani Qadri.
Dara Shikoh, son of Shah Jahan, followed this order.

Naqshbandi Order

Founded by Sheikh Biqabullah.
Introduced into India by Sheikh Pirsai.
Sheikh Niyamtulla was the greatest scholar of this school.
The most conservative of the orders, was followed by Aurangzeb.

Sufism in Indian Society

By educating the masses and deepening the spiritual concerns of the Muslims, Sufism has played an important role in the formation of Indian society.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q: What were the major religious movements during the Medieval Period?

Answer: The Medieval Period witnessed the rise of several significant religious movements, including the spread of Christianity, the expansion of Islam, the development of various sects and heresies within these faiths, and the emergence of movements like the Bhakti and Sufi movements in South Asia.

Q: How did the Crusades impact religious movements in the Medieval Period?

Answer: The Crusades were a series of military campaigns initiated by Christians to recapture the Holy Land from Muslim control. They not only influenced the course of Christianity but also led to increased interactions and cultural exchanges between different religious groups, impacting religious thought and practices in the Medieval Period.

Q: What role did the Bhakti and Sufi movements play in Medieval India?

Answer: The Bhakti and Sufi movements were religious and spiritual movements in Medieval India that emphasized direct, personal devotion to God and promoted religious tolerance. They played a crucial role in bridging the gap between different religious communities and fostering unity and mutual understanding.

Q: How did the Inquisition affect religious movements during the Medieval Period?

Answer: The Inquisition was a series of investigations and trials conducted by the Catholic Church to suppress heresy. It led to the persecution of various religious groups, including Cathars and Jews, and had a chilling effect on religious dissent and non-conformity during the Medieval Period.

Q: What was the impact of the Protestant Reformation on Medieval Christianity?

Answer: The Protestant Reformation, led by figures like Martin Luther and John Calvin, was a religious movement in the 16th century that challenged the authority of the Catholic Church. It resulted in the fragmentation of Western Christianity, with the emergence of Protestant denominations and significantly altered the religious landscape of the Medieval and Early Modern Periods.

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