The Later Mughals, a crucial phase in Indian history spanning the 18th century, marked the decline and disintegration of the once formidable Mughal Empire. This period, characterized by political instability, military conflicts, and the emergence of regional powers, witnessed a significant departure from the glory days of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan. The diminishing central authority of the Mughal rulers allowed regional rulers to assert their autonomy, leading to the rise of powerful states across the subcontinent. The dynamics of this era provide a rich tapestry for students of medieval Indian history, as they explore the complex interplay of political, social, and economic factors that contributed to the decline of the Mughal Empire and the subsequent reshaping of the Indian subcontinent. In this context, understanding the Later Mughals becomes imperative for aspirants preparing for the UPSC examination, as it sheds light on the transitional period that paved the way for the colonial era in Indian history.
Nadir Shah
Nadir Shah Afshar, a formidable military leader and founder of the Afsharid dynasty of Iran, left an indelible mark on the pages of history during his rule from 1736 to 1747. Recognized as one of the most powerful monarchs in Iranian history, his conquests extended beyond the borders of Persia, notably culminating in the invasion of Northern India. The events surrounding his invasion exposed the vulnerabilities of the crumbling Mughal Empire, leading to the infamous Battle of Karnal in 1739 and the subsequent sack of Delhi.
Early Life and Rise to Power
Nadir Shah’s journey began at the fortress of Dastgerd, where he was born into the Qereqlu clan of the Afshars, a semi-nomadic Turkic Qizilbash pastoralist tribe residing in the northern valleys of Khorasan. Born during the waning years of the Safavid dynasty, Nadir Shah witnessed the decline of the once formidable Safavid Empire, marked by weak leadership under Sultan Husayn.
In 1730, seizing the opportunity presented by the weakening Safavid rule, Nadir Shah ascended to the throne of Persia. His forces captured Esfahan, the seat of the Safavid dynasty, and established the Afsharid dynasty. Subsequently, Nadir Shah’s military campaigns extended to Kandahar, the last stronghold of the Hotaki dynasty in Afghanistan, solidifying his control over the region.
Afsharid Dynasty
The Afsharid dynasty, emerging in 1736 under Nadir Shah’s leadership, marked a significant chapter in Iranian history. Descended from the Turkoman Afshar clan in the northeastern region of Khorasan, the dynasty attained its zenith under Nadir Shah’s rule. The expansive empire ruled over modern-day Iran, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan Republic, parts of the North Caucasus, Afghanistan, Bahrain, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Pakistan, as well as sections of Iraq, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, and Oman.
Nadir Shah’s demise in 1747 initiated the decline of the Afsharid dynasty, with subsequent partitioning among various factions, including the Zands, Durranis, Georgians, and Caucasian khanates. Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar eventually overthrew the Afsharids in 1796, establishing a new native Iranian kingdom and restoring Iranian suzerainty over several provinces.
Invasion of India by Nadir Shah
Nadir Shah’s military prowess extended beyond the borders of Persia, with his invasion of Northern India in 1738. The invasion was ostensibly justified by the perceived insult to the Persian ambassador at the royal court of Delhi by the Mughal ruler Muhammad Shah.
Advancing into Mughal territories, Nadir Shah was joined by Erekle II, his Georgian vassal, as they crossed the Hindu Kush mountains. The culmination of this campaign was the War of Karnal in 1739, where Nadir Shah’s forces decisively defeated the Mughals.
Massacre and Plunder of Delhi
Triumphant in the War of Karnal, Nadir Shah entered Delhi, exposing the frailty of the Mughal Empire. The keys to the Delhi fort and its treasures were surrendered, including the famed Koh-i-Nur diamond and the jewel-studded Peacock Throne of Shah Jahan.
However, events took a dark turn as word spread falsely that Nadir Shah had been assassinated. Chaos ensued in Delhi, leading to riots and the murder of Persian troops. Enraged, Nadir Shah ordered a brutal massacre on March 11, 1739, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 200,000 inhabitants.
The consequences of Nadir Shah’s invasion were severe, with the complete demolition, robbery, and plunder of Delhi. The Peacock Throne, an emblem of Mughal opulence, was carried away along with immense wealth, including the Koh-i-Nur diamond. The invasion left the Mughal Empire in disarray, unable to confront subsequent challenges.
Legacy and Impact
Nadir Shah’s invasion of India marked a watershed moment in the history of the Mughal Empire. The catastrophic aftermath, including the loss of territories and prestige, left the Mughals vulnerable to further invasions. Subsequent Afghan invasions by Ahmad Shah Abdali between 1748 and 1767 further weakened the Mughal Empire.
The Peacock Throne, an unparalleled symbol of imperial grandeur, became a casualty of Nadir Shah’s conquest. The plundered wealth, including the Koh-i-Nur diamond, found its way to Persia, contributing to the splendor of Nadir Shah’s reign.
Nadir Shah’s military exploits, particularly his invasion of Northern India, had far-reaching consequences on the political landscape of the region. The sack of Delhi highlighted the vulnerability of established empires and reshaped the course of history, leaving an enduring legacy that echoed through the annals of time.
Ahmad Shah Abdali
Early Life and Rise to Power
Ahmad Shah Durrani, also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali, emerged as a significant historical figure in the 18th century as the founder of the Durrani Empire. Born in Multan in 1722 to Mohammad Zaman Khan, the governor of Herat, and belonging to the Abdali clan, Ahmad Shah’s early years were marked by the turbulent political landscape of the region.
The Abdali clan, initially led by Zulfiqar, surrendered to Nader Shah Afshar in 1729 but soon rebelled and reclaimed Herat and Mashhad. Ahmad Shah displayed military prowess by defeating Ibrahim Khan, Nader Shah’s brother, in 1730. His association with Nader Shah’s army grew, eventually leading to his appointment as the head of the Abdali Regiment during Nader Shah’s invasion of the Mughal Empire in 1738.
Formation of the Durrani Empire
The Durrani Empire, also known as the Sadozai Kingdom or the Afghan Empire, was Ahmad Shah Abdali’s creation. This Central Asian, Middle Eastern, and South Asian empire reached its zenith under his leadership. Ahmad Shah successfully unified various Pashtun tribes and established the Durrani Empire with the support of his Baloch allies. At its height, the empire encompassed modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan, as well as parts of northeastern and southeastern Iran, eastern Turkmenistan, and northern India.
The Durranis, succeeding the Barakzai dynasty in the early 19th century, traced their lineage to the Durrani Popalzai line, making them the second Pashtun kings of Kandahar after the Hotak dynasty. Ahmad Shah Durrani’s leadership played a pivotal role in elevating the Durranis to prominence.
Indian Invasions
Ahmad Shah Durrani left an indelible mark on Indian history through his relentless invasions between 1748 and 1767. Following the death of Nadir Shah in 1747, Ahmad Shah ascended to the Afghan throne and commenced a series of invasions aimed at looting wealth from neighboring territories.
Durrani’s invasions significantly contributed to the downfall of the already weakened Mughal Empire. His repeated raids, such as the Chota Ghalughara and Vada Ghalughara, inflicted substantial damage on the Mughals and created a power vacuum in the region. Durrani’s “tireless energy, ambition, and purpose” were evident in the frequency of his invasions.
Motivated by the economic disparity between Afghanistan and India, Ahmad Shah targeted the rich but poorly guarded neighboring nation, looting and exploiting its riches. Additionally, he aimed to establish political hegemony in India, capitalizing on the Mughal Empire’s decline. In 1757, he seized Delhi and strategically placed an Afghan caretaker to oversee the Mughal emperor.
The Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 marked a significant event in Ahmad Shah Durrani’s invasions, where he defeated the Marathas, delivering a severe blow to their ambitions in the north. The battle’s aftermath left a lasting impact, halting future Maratha advances in the north and destabilizing their territory for nearly a decade.
Legacy and Impact
Ahmad Shah Abdali’s legacy is intertwined with the rise of the Durrani Empire and its impact on the political landscape of South Asia. His invasions expedited the decline of the Mughal Empire and contributed to the fragmentation of its territories. The aftermath of his campaigns set the stage for further power struggles in the region.
Ahmad Shah Abdali’s life and reign represent a crucial period in the history of South Asia. His role as the founder of the Durrani Empire and his impact on the Mughal Empire and the Marathas during his invasions underscore his significance as a historical figure in the complex narrative of the Indian subcontinent.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
1. Who were the Later Mughals, and when did their rule begin?
Answer: The Later Mughals refer to the Mughal emperors who ruled India during the declining phase of the Mughal Empire, roughly from the late 17th century to the mid-19th century. The period is characterized by weak and ineffective rulers who struggled to maintain the empire’s integrity.
2. What were the major factors contributing to the decline of the Later Mughals?
Answer: The decline of the Later Mughals can be attributed to various factors, including weak leadership, succession wars, administrative inefficiency, financial mismanagement, and the increasing influence of regional powers and European colonial forces. The invasion and plunder by Nadir Shah in 1739 and Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1761 further weakened the empire.
3. Who were some notable rulers during the Later Mughal period, and what were their contributions or challenges?
Answer: Aurangzeb, Bahadur Shah I, Farrukhsiyar, Rafi-ul-Darajat, Shah Jahan II, and Akbar II were some of the notable rulers during the Later Mughal period. Aurangzeb’s reign saw the peak of the empire but also laid the groundwork for its decline due to his controversial policies. Subsequent rulers faced internal strife and external invasions, exacerbating the empire’s weakening.
4. How did the emergence of regional powers impact the Later Mughal Empire?
Answer: The emergence of powerful regional states, such as the Marathas, Sikhs, and Rohillas, significantly weakened the Later Mughal Empire. These regional powers asserted their autonomy and, in some cases, challenged the authority of the Mughal rulers. The empire became increasingly decentralized, with regional rulers gaining more control over their territories.
5. What role did European colonial powers play during the Later Mughal period?
Answer: European colonial powers, particularly the British, played a significant role in the decline of the Later Mughal Empire. The British East India Company gradually expanded its influence through diplomatic maneuvering, economic control, and military intervention. The Battle of Plassey (1757) and the Battle of Buxar (1764) marked turning points, leading to the establishment of British supremacy and the decline of Mughal authority. The subsequent British policies further marginalized the Mughal rulers, reducing them to mere figureheads.
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