UPSC NCERT Notes – Ancient History – Jainism and Buddhism

The sixth century BC saw the rise of Jainism and Buddhism and other religious sects, which was destined to bring to an end the unquestioned supremacy of Vedic Culture. They mainly originated in the middle Gangetic plains

Emergence of Heterodox Religious Sects

• The sixth century BC marked a significant period in Indian history concerning the development of alternative belief systems. 
• During this time, there was a noticeable opposition to the ritualistic and orthodox ideas propagated by the Brahmanas.
• This resistance paved the way for the emergence of various non-conformist religious movements, such as Jainism and Buddhism, which found patronage from different rulers.

The term “Heterodoxy” finds its roots in the ancient Greek word “heteros,” signifying something other, different from the prevailing beliefs. It encompasses opinions or doctrines that deviate from an established belief system.

Reasons Behind the Emergence of New Religions

Several factors contributed to the rise of these new non-conformist religions:

• Expensive Rituals: The Vedic religious practices had become intricate and burdensome, filled with numerous meaningless ceremonies, prompting a need for simpler alternatives.
• Discriminatory Systems: The later Vedic culture was characterized by a rigid caste system, leading to a hierarchical structure with the proliferation of castes and sub-castes. This discriminatory system became a driving force for the quest for alternative religious paths.
• Social Transformations in the Sixth Century BC
• The prevalent social conditions during the sixth century BC were marked by the subjugation of women and Shudras, leading to widespread distress among ordinary people. Notably, the growing influence of Brahmanas further exacerbated these inequalities.
• Dominance of Brahmanas: During this period, the significance of sacrifices and Yajnas solidified the dominance of Brahmanas in society. Acting as both priests and authoritative figures, they held a monopoly on performing sacred religious rites.
• Emergence of New Social Groups: The expansion of cultivated land gave rise to new states and social groups, gaining substantial economic power. The merchant class and affluent agricultural householders opposed the social positions imposed by Brahmanas based on heredity.
• Supremacy of Scriptures: Vedic literature, diverse and specialized in various aspects, was written in Sanskrit, a language accessible only to Brahmanas. This linguistic barrier prompted a yearning among the common people for a new, comprehensible language to understand their religion and literature.
• Rise of Non-Vedic Sects: In response to these social and linguistic challenges, various non-Vedic sects or religions emerged in the sixth century BC. These movements catered to the aspirations of Vaishya and non-Brahmanical powerful individuals and groups.

Jainism:

• Jain tradition claims antiquity predates Aryan Brahmanism. The succession of teachers, known as Tirthankaras, played a crucial role in Jainism.
• The 24 Tirthankaras include Rishabhanath, Ajinatha, and Aristanemi, with Rishabhanath considered the first and Vardhamana Mahavira the last.
• Teachings of ParshvanathaThe 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha, emphasized four principles: Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, and Aparigraha.
• Renouncing his throne at 30, he attained enlightenment after 84 days of penance, living to 100 years.

Vardhamana Mahavira

• Vardhamana Mahavirahe 24th Tirthankara, Vardhamana Mahavira, introduced celibacy (Brahmacharya) to his teachings.
• After 13 years of penance, he achieved Kevala Jnana, the highest spiritual knowledge, at Jimbhikagrama village. 
• Known as Mahavira, he preached for 30 years, passing away at Pava at the age of 72.

Real Name	Vardhamana
Titles	Mahavira, Nayaputa, Nirgrantha
Birth	540 BC
Place of Birth	Kundagrama in Vaishali
Father’s Name	Siddhartha
Mother’s Name	Trishala (A Licchavi Princess, Sister of Chetaka)
Wife	Yashoda
Class	Kshatriya
Clan	Nyaya (Jnatrika)
Companion	Gosala Makkhaliputta

Philosophy of Jainism

• Jainism believed in the theory of Syadvada (Theory of Conditional), i.e., the Theory of Relativity of Knowledge. It is believed that there is no absolute answer to a question. Every object exists about other objects. In one way, it is only an extension of Anekanta ontology but a separate system of logic.
• The main features of Jaina philosophy remain in its dualistic metaphysics, which states that there are two categories of living:
  • Conscious being (Jiva)
  • Non-living beings (Ajiva)

Other important aspects of the philosophy of Jainism

Aspects	Description
Anekantavada	Objects of knowledge have infinite characteristics.
Nayavada	An individual understands an object of knowledge through a particular point of view.
Saptabhanginaya	Seven points of view to understand an object of knowledge.
Syadvada	Understanding of an object of knowledge is conditional.

List of 24 Tirthankaras

S.N.	Names	Symbols	Nirvana Places
1	Rishabhanath	Bull	Mt. Ashtapada
2	Ajitnath	Elephant	Sammed Shikharji
3	Sambhavnath	Horse	Sammed Shikharji
4	Abhinandannath	Monkey	Sammed Shikharji
5	Sumatinath	Curlew	Sammed Shikharji
6	Padmaprabha	Red Lotus	Sammed Shikharji
7	Suparshvanath	Svastika	Sammed Shikharji
8	Chandra Prabha	Crescent	Sammed Shikharji
9	Pushpadanta	Crocodile	Sammed Shikharji
10	Shitalnath	Wishing Tree	Sammed Shikharji
11	Shreyamsanath	Rhinoceros	Sammed Shikharji
12	Vasupujya	Buffalo	Champa
13	Vimalnath	Boar (Shukar)	Sammed Shikharji
14	Anantanath	Falcon (Baaj)	Sammed Shikharji
15	Dharmanath	Vajardanda	Sammed Shikharji
16	Shantinath	Deer	Sammed Shikharji
17	Kunthunath	He-goat	Sammed Shikharji
18	Aranath	Fish	Sammed Shikharji
19	Malinath	Water Pot	Sammed Shikharji
20	Munisuvrata	Tortoise	Sammed Shikharji
21	Naminath	Blue Lotus	Raivantgiri
22	Aristnemi	Conch	Sammed Shikharji
23	Parshvanath	Serpent	Sammed Shikharji
24	Mahavira (Vardhamana)	Lion	Pavapuri

Principles of Jainism (Doctrines)

Householders were expected to uphold five vows:

• Ahimsa (Non-violence)
• Satya (Truthfulness)
• Asteya (Non-stealing)
• Brahmacharya (Celibacy)
• Aparigraha (Non-possession of property)
• Parshvanath introduced the first four principles, while the fifth one was later added by Lord Mahavira.
• Jainism emphasizes asceticism and penance as essential for breaking free from the cycle of Karma. Therefore, true salvation (Liberation) can only be achieved by renouncing the worldly life and embracing a monastic lifestyle.
• Liberation is also attainable through pure and meritorious conduct, irrespective of one’s social origin. The Three Jewels of Jainism, believed to guide the path toward liberation, include:
  • Right knowledge (Samyak Gyan)
  • Right faith (Samyak Darshana)
  • Right action (Samyak Charitra)

Sects/Schools of Jainism

Aspect	Digambara	Svetambara
Clothing of Monks	Male monks do not wear clothes; female monks wear unstitched plain white sarees.	Male monks wear white clothes.
Notable Exponents	Stulabhadra was an exponent of this sect.	Bhadrabahu was an exponent of this sect.
Views on Liberation	Believe women cannot achieve liberation.	Believe women can achieve liberation.
Vows Followed	Follow only four vows (excluding Brahmacharya).	Follow all five vows (Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha, and Brahmacharya).
Major Sub-Sects	Murtipujaka, Sthanakvasi, Terapanthi.	Mula Sangh, Bisapantha, Terapantha, Taranpantha, or Samaiyapantha.

Jainism or Women Mahavira embraced the inclusion of women in the Sangha, allowing them to become Nuns (Shraninis and Shravikas). He advocated the equality of women and men in the pursuit and attainment of Moksha.

Jaina Literature

Jaina literature can be categorized into two main types:

Agama Literature:

• Sacred texts composed in Ardh-Magadhi.
• Includes:
• Acaranga Sutra (the initial text guiding Jain monks on monastic life).
• Sutrakrtanga.
• Sthananga.
• Samavayanga.
• Vyakhyaprajnapti.
• Jnatrdharmakathah.
• Upasakadasah.
• Antakrddaasah.
• Anuttaraupapatikadasah.
• Prasnavyakaranani.
• Vipakasruta.
• Drstivada (comprising 14 purvas).
• 12 Upangas (considered as sub-parts or auxiliary limbs of Angas).
• 6 Chedasutras (texts related to the conduct and behavior of monks and nuns).
• 4 Mulasutras (known as the Fundamental Rule Book).
• 2 Culikasutras (Book of Appendixes).
• The two major sects, Digambaras and Svetambaras, compiled different bodies of literature. While the works of the Digambaras have been lost over time, the canons of the Svetambaras, known as Sidhantha, consist of various available scriptures.

Non-Agama Literature

Literature	Writer
Theravali	Merutunga
Padma Charita	Vimala Suri
Antara Katha	Rajshekhara
Parisishtha Parvan	Hema Chandra
Tattvartha Sutra	Umasvati
Avasyaksutra	Visesanavati Jinabhadra
Nayacakra	Mallavadin
Dvadasaranayacakra	Mallavadin
Yogdrashti Samuchchaya	Haribhadra Suri
Jainendra-Vyakarana	Acharya Pujyapada
Sakatayana-Vyakarana	Sakatayana
Yogashastra	Hem Chandra

Kalpa SutraThe Kalpa Sutra written by Bhadrabahu is a biography on numerous Tirthankaras with a primal interest in Mahavira and Parshvanatha. The text mostly used by the Svetambaras.

Major Jaina Languages

• Jaina languages encompass Jain, Prakrit, Sanskrit, Gujarati, and Kannada. It is noteworthy that a significant portion of early Kannada literature and numerous Tamil works were authored by Jains.

Jaina Architecture

• The earliest evidence of Jaina architecture can be traced in the caves (viharas) of Odisha, including Khandagiri, Udayagiri (first century BC), Hanthi Gumpha (first century BC), and Ellora (11th and 12th century AD) in Maharashtra.
• Jaina temples in Dilwara, Rajasthan, were constructed by Solanki rulers, and dedicated to Jain Tirthankara. Renowned for their unique and distinct style, these temples are entirely crafted from white marble.
• The Ranakpura Jaina temple, built in the 15th century AD, is attributed to the first Tirthankara Adinath and features the Chaumukh design of architecture.
• Notable examples of Jaina architecture include the 983 AD Statue of Gomateshwara (Bahubali) in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka, as well as temples in Gwalior, Khajuraho, Deogarh, Chanderi, among others, showcasing the rich heritage of Jain architecture.
• The 84-foot-high Statue of Rishabhdeva, constructed in the 12th century AD, stands at Bawangaja in the Badwani district of Madhya Pradesh.

Royal Patrons of Jainism

South India	North and East India
Kadamba and Ganga dynasty	Bimbisara, Ajatshatru, and Udayin (Haryanka)
Amoghvarsha (Rashtrakuta dynasty)	Nandas
Siddharaj Jai Sing and Kumar Pala (Chalukya or Solanki)	Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and Samprati (Maurya)
	Pradyota (Avanti)
	Udayan (Sindhu-Sauvira)
	Kharavela (Kalinga)
	Chetaka (Videha)

Important Terms Related with Jainism

• Posadha: The practice of fasting by Jaina members on full moon and new moon days.
• Sallekhana: The religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by gradually reducing food and liquid intake, also known as santhara.
• Avasarpini: The descending order of the six periods in the Jaina cosmic cycle.
• Theravada: The second section of the Jaina Kalpasutra contains a list of schools (anonas) and their leaders.
• Ajnanavada: The Jaina doctrine of agnosticism or skepticism, consisting of 67 kinds.
• Mahavratas: Five principles observed by Jain monks.
• Anuvratas: Less rigorous principles to be followed by Jainism followers.
• Utsarpini: The ascending order of the Jaina cosmic cycle.
• Susama-Susama: The first cosmic cycle of Jainism, considered a very happy and virtuous period.
• Dusama-Dusama: The sixth and last period of the Jaina cosmic cycle, a wretched period.
• Trisastisalaka Purushacharita: The longest poem composed by Jaina scholar Hemachandra, dealing with the deeds of 63 enlightened men, including 24 Tirthankaras.

Important Philosophies in Jainism

• Kaivalya (Kevala Jnana): Omniscience in Jainism, representing complete understanding or supreme wisdom.
• Asrav: The inflow of karmas to the soul occurring at every second in life.
• Samvara: The stoppage of the influx of material karmas into the soul consciousness.
• Nirjara: Shedding or removal of accumulated karmas from the soul, essential for breaking free from samsara (cycle of birth-death-rebirth) and achieving moksha (liberation).

Decline of Jainism

• Concept of Ahimsa: The Jaina emphasis on non-violence, taken to impractical extremes, such as avoiding medicine, contributed to the decline.
• Practicality Issues: The impractical aspects of certain principles, like abstaining from medicine, led to a decline in Jainism in India.
• Adoption of such practices failed to gain popularity among the common people, and there was no support from later kings.

Buddhism

• Buddhism, as a religion and philosophy, encompasses various traditions, beliefs, and practices primarily rooted in the teachings of Buddha.
• Lay followers of Buddhism were referred to as Upasakas.

Gautama Buddha

• Buddhism was established based on the teachings and life experiences of Siddhartha Gautam, born in 563 BC in the Shakya Kshatriya clan at Lumbini near Kapilvastu in the Piprahwa district of Nepal.
• At the age of 29, he renounced his life of wealth in favor of asceticism and intense self-discipline.
• Sujata, a farmer’s wife, offered Gautama Buddha a bowl of kheer (a milk rice pudding) after he ended his six years of asceticism.
• Enlightenment occurred under a peepal tree in Bodhgaya, in modern Bihar, following 49 days of meditation.
• The first sermon was delivered in a deer park at Sarnath, addressing his initial disciples, including Mahanama and Koudanna.
• Khema, one of Queen Bimbisara’s queens, is considered the first female disciple of Gautama Buddha.
• According to his teachings, Nirvana could be achieved by freeing oneself from the cycle of birth and death.

Real Name	Siddhartha
Titles	Buddha, Shakya Muni
Birth	563 BC, Lumbini in Kapil Vastu
Father’s name	Shuddhodhana
Mother’s name	Mahamaya
Foster mother	Mahaprajapati Gautami
Wife	Yasodhara
Son	Rahul
Enlightenment	Uruvela, under the Peepal tree (known as Maha Bodhi tree)
Death	483 BC, Kushinagar (Mahaparinirvana

Philosophy of Buddhism

• The Doctrine of Karma is the essential part of the teachings of Buddha.
• It emphasizes on the moral life of an individual.
• It neither accepted nor rejected the existence of God. It rejected the Vedas and Vedic rituals and even the caste system.
• It didn’t believe in the permanence of soul. It emphasized on Ahimsa.
• With the reference to the cultural history of India, the term Parampita refers to perfections whose attainment led to the Bodhisattva path.

Symbols Representing Events of Buddh’s Life

Events	Symbols
Birth	Lotus and Bull
Renunciation (Mahabhiniskarmana)	Horse
Enlightenment (Nirvana)	Bodhi tree
First Sermon (Dharmachakra Parivartana)	Wheel
Death (Maha Parinirvana)	Stupa

Buddhist Doctrines

• The Buddha, as a pragmatic reformer, aimed primarily at achieving liberation from the harsh realities of sorrow and sufferings.
• Thus, he articulated the Four Noble Truths (Arya Satya) as follows:
  • Dukkha: The world is replete with sorrows.
  • Samudaya: Desire is the fundamental cause of all sorrows.
  • Nirodha: Nirvana can be attained by overcoming desires.
  • Magga/Marga: There exists a path for the cessation of sorrows.

Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)

• The Eightfold Path, or Ashtangika Marga, presented by Buddha, provides guidance on the righteous way of life to attain Nirvana.
• This path is the middle way, steering clear of extremes like excessive luxury or severe austerity.
• The middle path ultimately leads to Nirvana, signifying not only the cessation of desire but also the attainment of a state of perfect tranquility.

Three Gems (Triratnas)

• The three Gems of Buddhism represent three fundamental aspects of the Buddhist faith and practice, namely:
• Buddha (the enlightened)
• Dhamma (doctrine)
• Sangha (order)

Five Precepts of Buddha (Panchshila)

• Refrain from killing, emphasizing respect for life.
• Abstain from theft.
• Avoid sexual misconduct.
• Refrain from falsehood.
• Abstain from intoxication.

Buddhist Monastic Community

• Gautama Buddha established an organized and disciplined community for his followers known as Sangha.
• Any individual, regardless of gender, who has renounced personal belongings, could join the Sangha on the basis of equality.
• Initially, Sangha did not allow women, but following requests from Ananda (a disciple) and Gautami (foster mother), the doors were opened for women.
• To commence, one had to pledge allegiance to (Buddha-Dhamma-Sangha), undergo head shaving (mundana), and don the yellow attire.
• Subsequently, the individual could undergo initiation, known as Upasampada.
• After Upasampada, the person was accepted as a member of Sangha and was expected to adhere to the code of conduct (dasha-shila). 
• This code included refraining from alcohol consumption, avoiding untimely meals, abstaining from dance and songs, eschewing the use of perfumes, forgoing mattresses for sleep, avoiding gold and silver ornaments, and abstaining from adultery, among other principles.

Famous Monks at the Time of Buddha

Monks	Related Facts
Ananda	The constant companion of Buddha and the most devoted disciple.
Anuradha
Mahakassapa	The master of right mindfulness.
	The President of the Buddhist Council held at Rajagriha.
Moggallana	He had the greatest supernatural powers.
Sariputta	Possessed profound insight into the Dhamma.
Upali	Master of Vinaya.

Buddhist Councils

Councils	First Buddhist Council	Second Buddhist Council	Third Buddhist Council	Fourth Buddhist Council
Years	483 BC	383 BC	250 BC	AD 72
Venues	Saptaparni cave, Rajagriha	Vaishali	Pataliputra	Kundalvan, Kashmir
Chairmans	Mahakasyapa	Sabakami	Mogaliputta Tisa	Vasumitra (Chairman), Asvaghosha (Vice-Chairman)
Royal Patrons	Ajatshatru (Haryanka dynasty)	Kalasoka (Shishunaga dynasty)	Ashoka (Mauryan empire)	Kanishka (Kushan dynasty)
Developments	Compilation of Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka by Ananda and Upali respectively.	Monks were split into Stavirvadins and Mahasanghikas.	Compilation of Abhidhamma Pitaka.	Division of Buddhists into Hinayana and Mahayana.

Sects of Buddhism

• Buddhism, much like Jainism, encountered internal differences and conflicts, resulting in its division into three main sects:

(i) Hinayana or Lesser Wheel:

• Followers adhered to the original teachings of Buddha, pursuing individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation without engaging in idol worship.
• Hinayana, a religion devoid of a deity, positioned Karma in place of God, with Nirvana seen as the extinction of all.
• The oldest school, Sthaviravada (Theravada in Pali), and its more philosophical Sanskrit counterpart, Sarvastivada, asserted the existence of all things, both physical and mental, including a critical branch called Sautantrika.

(ii) Mahayana or Greater Wheel:

• Devotees believed in the transcendence of Buddha and aspired to achieve salvation for all through Buddha’s grace and the assistance of Bodhisattvas, embracing idol worship.
• Nirvana, in Mahayana, was viewed not as a negative cessation but as a positive state of bliss.
• Mahayana comprised two primary philosophical schools, Madhyamika and Yogachara, with the former, led by Nagarjuna, adopting a middle ground between Hinayanism’s realism and Yogacharya’s idealism.
• The Yogachara School, founded by Maitreyanatha, completely rejected Hinayanism’s realism in favor of absolute idealism. 

Sanskrit was the language of choice for Mahayana Buddhists, receiving patronage from Kanishka and later support from Harsha.

(iii) Vajrayana or Vehicle of Thunderbolt:

• Followers believed that salvation could be best achieved through the acquisition of magical power, termed Vajra, with the chief divinities being the Taras.
• This sect gained popularity in Eastern India, particularly in Bengal and Bihar.

Bodhisattvas:

• In Mahayana Buddhism, a Bodhisattva is an individual capable of reaching Nirvana but chooses to delay it out of compassion for suffering beings, akin to the concept of Incarnations in Hindu mythology.
• Bodhisattvas are recurring figures in Buddhist literature and art.

Famous Buddhist Scholars

Scholars	Related Facts
Asvaghosha	Contemporary of Kanishka. Poet, dramatist, musician, scholar, and debater.
Nagarjuna	Contemporary of Satavahana kings. Propounded the Madhyamika School of Buddhist Philosophy known as Sunyavada.
Asanga and Vasubandhu	Asanga, the key teacher of Yogachara/Vijnanavada School. Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakosa is an important Buddhist Encyclopedia.
Buddhaghosha	Lived in the 5th century AD. Renowned Pali scholar. His commentaries and the Visuddhimagga are significant in post-Tripitaka literature.
Dignaga	Fifth-century intellectual, founder of Buddhist logic.
Dharmakirti	Lived in the 7th century AD. Another prominent Buddhist logician.

Buddhist Literature

The teachings of Buddha were gathered and categorized into three volumes known collectively as the Tripitaka.

These three volumes include

• Sutta Pitaka: A compilation of Buddha’s teachings presented in a dialogue format, primarily intended for the common people.
• Digha Nikaya (Collection of Long Discourses of the Buddha)
• Majjima Nikaya (Collection of Medium-Length Discourses of the Buddha)
• Samyutta Nikaya (Compilation of thematic discourses)
• Anguttara Nikaya (Compilation of discourses grouped by content narration)
• Khuddaka Nikaya (Compilation of poetic works in the Pali Canon)
• The Vinaya Pitaka: This section contains rules and regulations for monastic discipline for monks. Known as the Basket of Discipline, the Vinaya Pitaka is the oldest and smallest of the three sections of the Tripitaka. It provides guidelines for monks to lead a monastic life.
• The Abhidhamma Pitaka: This section contains profound philosophies derived from Buddha’s teachings.
• The Jataka: It is a collection of over 500 poems that describe the previous births of Buddha.
• The Buddhavamsa: This section contains legends and verses about the 24 Buddhas who preceded Gautama in earlier times.
• Milinda Panho: It comprises discussions between Menander and the Buddhist Monk Nagasena.
• Ceylonese Chronicles: This section contains information about Dipavamsa (Island Chronicle), Mahavamsa (Great Chronicle), and Culavamsa (Lesser Chronicle).

Buddhist Architecture

• Buddhist architecture developed in the Indian subcontinent in the third century BC.
• Three types of structures are associated with the religious architecture of early Buddhism: monasteries (Viharas), stupas, and shrines or prayer halls (Chaityas).

The prominent Buddhist site in India is Bodhgaya, where Siddhartha achieved enlightenment and became Gautama Buddha. While the Bodhi Tree is of immense importance, the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya is a significant example of the brickwork architecture of that time.

• Cave temples, such as those at Ajanta and Ellora, have preserved the form, porch, and interior arrangements of ancient monasteries and temples. Initially serving as both monasteries and temples, they later became more elaborate, providing accommodation for sleeping, eating, and studying.
• The decoration of Buddhist sites became progressively more elaborate through the last two centuries BC, introducing human figures, particularly on stupas. 
• The representation of the image of Buddha in human form began in the first century AD, marking the commencement of image worship in India and influencing the development of temples in Hinduism.
• The major schools of Buddhist art were Gandhara, Mathura, and Amravati, each contributing distinctive types of sculptural art in the Indian subcontinent.
• The oldest form of Buddha’s statue is attributed to the Gandhara School of Art.
• Other notable Buddhist architectural monuments in India include the Nalanda Mahavihara or University, a complex of several monasteries that accommodated students from various regions, and evidence suggests that all three Buddhist doctrines (Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana) were taught here.

Buddhist Mudras

• Abhaya Mudra: This mudra (gesture) represents protection, peace, benevolence, and the dispelling of fear.
• Bhumisparsha Mudra: This gesture calls upon the Earth to witness Shakyamuni Buddha’s enlightenment at Bodhgaya.
• Dharmachakra Mudra: The Dharmachakra Mudra represents a central moment in the life of Buddha when he preached his first sermon after enlightenment in Deer Park in Sarnath.
• Dhyana Mudra: The Dhyana Mudra (meditation mudra) symbolizes the concentration of the good law and the Sangha.
• Varada Mudra: The Varada Mudra (favorable mudra) signifies offering, welcome, charity, giving, compassion, and sincerity.
• Vajra Mudra: The Vajra Mudra (thunder mudra) represents the gesture of knowledge.
• Vitarka Mudra: The Vitarka Mudra (mudra of discussion) symbolizes the gesture of discussion and the transmission of Buddhist teachings.
• Gyana Mudra: The Gyana Mudra (mudra of knowledge) is performed by touching the tips of the thumb and the index finger together, forming a circle, with the hand-held palm inward towards the heart.
• Karana Mudra: The Karana Mudra is the gesture that expels demons and removes obstacles such as sickness or negative thoughts.

Buddhism and Brahmanism

• Brahmanism is the religion that evolved from the historical Vedic religion, based on the Vedas and Upanishads, and a product of the ritualistic system led by Brahmin priests in Hindu society. Buddhism, on the other hand, developed from the teachings and philosophy of life of the Buddha.
• Brahmanism strongly emphasizes rituals as prescribed in the aforementioned scriptures to lead a good life, whereas Buddhism rejects all rituals and emphasizself-development/self-exploration through the dhamma, the precepts, the practice, the Four Truths, and the Eightfold Path.

Decline of Buddhism

• By the 12th century AD, Buddhism had become practically extinct in India, falling victim to the challenges posed by Brahmanism, against which it had initially struggled. Over time, Buddhist monks became disconnected from the mainstream of people’s lives as they shifted from Pali (the language of the people) to Sanskrit (the language of intellectuals).
• The rapid growth of heterogeneous religions compelled the Vedic religion to reflect on their belief systems. Consequently, reforms were made in the once-rigid, ritualistic Vedic religion, transforming it into a people-oriented system.
• By the 12th century AD, Buddhism had become practically extinct in India, succumbing to the challenges posed by Brahmanism, against which it had initially fought. The Buddhist monks became disconnected from the mainstream of people’s lives as they abandoned Pali, the language of the people, in favor of Sanskrit.

Differences between Buddhism and Jainism

• Jainism emphasized lay and common followers, while Buddhism primarily relied on the Sangha and its monks. The approach to attaining salvation in Jainism was extreme, whereas in Buddhism, it was relatively moderate. While Jainism remained confined to India, Buddhism rapidly spread to foreign lands.
• Jainism adopted a more liberal stance toward women.
• Jainism believed in the existence of the soul, whereas Buddhism did not.
• Buddhism rejected the concept of god or deity, while Jainism affirmed the existence of gods.
• Jainism emphasized Ahimsa, whereas in Buddhism, Ahimsa encompassed liberal sentiments and practical behavior.

Other Heterodox Sects (600-300 BC)

• According to Buddhist literary sources, around 62 heterodox sects existed in India in the sixth century BC. Some important ones include:

Philosophies	Founders	Thought Process
Ajivikas	Gosala Maskariputra	Believed that the thought and deed of an individual were predetermined (decided before birth).
		Ajivikas also believed that every being has a soul within it, which takes rebirth after each life, disregarding faith in destiny. Natural and spiritual progress occur through the continuous cycle of birth and rebirth.
Uchchedavada	Ajita Kesakambalin	Believed in materialistic philosophy.
Niyativada	Nanda Vachcha	Proposed the idea that everything in the world is pre-determined.
Materialism	Brihaspati or Charvaka	Argued that nothing existed which could not be understood by the five senses.
Akriyavada	Purana Kasyapa	Advocated that the soul was distinct from the body.
Akrittavada	Pakudha Kaccayana	Believed in the existence of seven Nikayas: Earth, water, air, light, sorrow, happiness, and life.
Anichchitvada	Sanjay Vetiputta	Doctrine of non-approval and non-denial of the existence of anything.

Prelims Facts

• Parshavanatha, the Jain Tirthankara was associated mainly with which place? – Varanasi [UPPSC (Mains) 2016]
• Where was Mahavira Swami born ? – Kundagrama [UPPSC (Pre) 2004, BPSC (Pre) 2011]
• Who became the first follower of Mahavira? – Tamali [BPSC (Pre) 2005, UPPSC (Pre) 2008]
• The Salvation place of Mahavirji, the originator of the Jain religion is located at which place? – Pavapuri [BPSC (Pre) 2018,
• The doctrine of three jewels i.e., Right Belief, Right Conduct, and Right Knowledge is the crowning glory of which religion? – Jainism [UPPSC (Pre) 2004, BPSC (Pre) 2020]
• The term ‘Samadhi’ Maran’ is related to which philosophy? – Jain Philosophy ICGPSC (Pre) 2015)
• With reference to the religious practice in India, the Sthanakavasi sect belongs to – Jainism [IAS (Pre) 2018]
• Which place is known as a place of pilgrimages because of being related with Parshavanatha? – Sammed Shikharji [UPPSC (Pre) 2002)
• Mahamastakashishekha’ a great religious event is associated with whom? – Bahubali [IAS (Pre) 2009]
• In which language was the earliest Jain literature compiled? – Prakrit [UPPSC (Pre) 2006]
• Svetambara Agama was finally edited at the Jain Council of – Vallabhi [UPPSC (Mains) 2008]
• Which sacred Buddhist place was situated on the River Niranjana? – Bodh Gaya [UPPSC (Pre) 2012

UPSC NCERT Practice Questions

1. Parshvanatha, the Jain Tirthankara was associated mainly with which of the following places? UPPSC (Mains) 2016

(a) Varanasi

(b) Kaushambi

(c) Giribraja

(d) Champa

2. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched? UPPSC (Pre) 2021

Tirthankaras                                    Nirvana Places

(a) Rishabhanatha                                Ashtapad

(b) Vasupujya                                   Sammed Shikharji

(c) Neminath                                             Urjayanta

(d) Mahavira                                                 Pavapuri

3. Which of the following statements) is are applicable to Jain doctrine? UPPSC (Pre) 2013

1. The surest way of annihilating Karma is to practice penance.

2. Every object, even the smallest particle has a soul.

3. Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended.

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) Only 1 

(b) 2 and 3

 (c) 1 and 3

 (d) All of these

4. Which of the following doctrines are associated with Jainism? RAS/RTS (Pre) 2021

1. Anekantavada

2. Sarvastivada

3. Sunyavada

4. Syadvada

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) 1 and 4

(b) 2 and 4

(c) 1, 2 and 3

(d) 1 and 2

5. Souls are not only the property of animal and plant life, but also of rocks, running water and many other natural objects not looked on as living by other religious sects.

The above statement reflects one of the core beliefs of which one of the following religious sects of ancient India? IAS (Pre) 2023

(a) Buddhism

(b) Jainism

(c) Shaivism

(d) Vaishnavism

6 In which one of the following regions was Dhanyakataka, which flourished as a prominent Buddhist centre under the Mahasanghikas, located?

(a) Andhra

(b) Gandhara

(c) Kalinga

(d) Magadha

7. With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements. IAS (Pre) 2017

1. Sautrantika and Sammitiya were the sects of Jainism.

2. Sarvastivadin held that the constituents of phenomena were not wholly momentary, but existed forever in a latent form.

Which of the statements) given above is/are correct?

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

8. Read the following statements related to Jaina literature and choose the appropriate option. CGPSC (Pre) 2020

1. The Svetambara Canon included the 12 Angas.

2. According to Svetambara tradition, the Angas were complied at a council held at Vallabhi.

Which of the statements) given above is/are correct?

(a) Both the statements are true.

(b) Statement 1 is false but Statement 2 is true.

(c) Both the statements are false.

(d) Statement 1 is true, but statement 2 is false.

9. Concerning Indian history, consider the following texts.

1. Nettipakarana

2. Parishishtaparvan

3. Avadanashataka

4. Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana

 Which of the above are Jaina texts?

(a) 1, 2 and 3

(b) 2 and 4

(c) 1, 3 and 4

(d) 2, 3 and 4

10. The oldest sculpture of Buddha is made in which style? BPSC (Pre) 2020

(a) Gandhara style

(b) Mathura style

(c) Mauryan style

(d) Gupta style

11. With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following pairs. IAS (Pre) 2020

1. Parivrajaka-Renuciant and Wanderer

2. Shramana-Priest with a high status

3. Upasaka-Lay follower of Buddhism

Which of the pairs given above are correctly matchea?

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 1 and 3

(c) 2 and 3

(d) 1, 2 and 3

12. With reference to the cultural history of India, which one of the following is the correct description of the term ‘Paramitas’? IAS (Pre) 2020 written

(a) The earliest Dharmashastra texts aphoristic (Sutra) style.

b) Philosophical schools that did not accept the authority (Sutra) style.

(c) Perfectly (Suase tainment led to the Bodhisaty

(a) Powerful merchant guides of early medieval South India.

13. Consider the following.

1. Deification of the Buddha

2. Treading the path of Bodhisattvas

3. Image worship and rituals

Which of the above is/are the feature/features of Mahayana Buddhism?

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 2 and 3

(c) Only 3

(d) All of these

14. With reference to the history of ancient India, which of the following was common to both Buddhism and Jainism? IAS (Pre) 2020

1. Avoidance of extremities of penance and enjoyment

2. In difference to the authority of the Vedas.

3. Denial of the efficacy of rituals.

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) Only 1

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 1 and 3

(d) All of the above

15. With reference to ancient India, consider the following statements. IAS (Pre 2023

1. The concept of Stupa is Buddhist in origin.

2. The stupa was generally a repository of relics.

3. The stupa was a votive and commemorative structure of Buddhist tradition.

How many of the statements given above are correct?

(a) Only one

(b) Only two

(c) All three

(d) None

Know Right Answer

1 (a)

2 (b)

3 (d)

4 (a)

5(b)

6 (a) 

7 (b)

8 (d)

9 (b)

10 (a)

11 (b)

12 (c)

13 (d)

14 (b)

15 (b)

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. Q: Why is it essential to study Jainism and Buddhism in the context of Ancient Indian history for the UPSC exam?

A: Understanding Jainism and Buddhism is crucial for UPSC aspirants as these ancient religions played a significant role in shaping the social, cultural, and philosophical landscape of ancient India. The knowledge of these religions helps candidates comprehend the diversity of thought during that era and provides insights into the socio-economic and political conditions, which is essential for answering questions related to ancient Indian history in the UPSC exam.

2. Q: What were the key principles and teachings of Jainism and Buddhism during ancient times?

A: Jainism, founded by Mahavira, emphasizes non-violence (ahimsa), truth (satya), and asceticism. Buddhism, founded by Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), focuses on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path to attain enlightenment. Both religions share commonalities in advocating compassion, ethical conduct, and the rejection of caste distinctions, making it imperative for UPSC aspirants to grasp the fundamental tenets of these belief systems.

3. Q: How did Jainism and Buddhism influence the socio-cultural fabric of ancient India?

A: Jainism and Buddhism challenged the orthodoxy of the Vedic traditions and the caste system. They promoted social equality, rejected ritualism, and advocated for a simpler way of life. The spread of these religions also contributed to the rise of new art forms, architectural styles, and cultural practices, making them crucial elements to study when examining the evolution of ancient Indian society.

4. Q: Discuss the historical significance of key events related to Jainism and Buddhism for UPSC preparation.

A: Events such as the life of Mahavira and the formation of the Jain monastic order, as well as the life and teachings of Buddha and the establishment of the Buddhist Sangha, are crucial historical milestones. Understanding these events is essential for UPSC aspirants to contextualize the broader historical narrative and analyze their impact on ancient Indian society, governance, and culture.

5. Q: How did the decline of Jainism and Buddhism unfold, and what factors contributed to their decline in ancient India?

A: The decline of Jainism and Buddhism in India is a multifaceted process involving factors like the revival of Hinduism, political changes, and the decline of royal patronage. UPSC aspirants should be aware of these factors and their interplay to provide a comprehensive analysis of the historical dynamics that led to the decline of these two influential religions in ancient India.

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