UPSC NCERT Notes - Geography - Minerals and Energy Resources

A naturally occurring substance that has a definite chemical composition and physical properties is called a mineral. Minerals are not evenly distributed over the Earth’s surface. They are concentrated in particular areas or crock formations and are formed in different types of geological environments, under varying conditions.

Table of Contents

Introduction

The Earth is composed of various kinds of elements. These elements are in solid form in the outer layer of the Earth.
About 98% of the total crust of the Earth is composed of eight elements namely oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium.
The rest is constituted of titanium, hydrogen, phosphorous, manganese, sulfur, carbon, nickel, and other elements.

Minerals

Mineral is a naturally occurring organic and inorganic substance, having an orderly atomic structure and a definite chemical composition and physical properties.
Magma is the primary sources of minerals. Magma reaches the Earth’s surface through volcanic eruptions. As it reaches the surface, it crystallises to form minerals.
Minerals such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are organic substances found in solid, liquid and gaseous forms.
The International Mineralogical Association (IMA) recognised around 5,413 official minerals in November, 2018

Physical Features of Minerals:

External Crystal Form: Determined by the internal arrangement of molecules, such as cubes, octahedrons, hexagonal prisms, etc.
Cleavage: Tendency to break in specific directions, producing relatively plane surfaces. Result of the internal arrangement of molecules. May cleave in one or more directions and at various angles to each other.
Fracture: Crystal breaks in an irregular manner, not along planes of cleavage. Breaks along random directions.
Lustre: Describes how light is reflected on the mineral’s surface. Each mineral has a distinctive lustre, such as metallic, silky, glossy, etc.
Colour: Some minerals have characteristic colours determined by their molecular structure. Impurities may also contribute to the colour of certain minerals.
Streak: Colour of the ground powder of any mineral. May be the same or differ from the mineral’s colour.
Transparency: Physical property of light passing through the material. Can be categorized as transparent, translucent, or opaque.
Specific Gravity: Ratio of the weight of a substance’s volume to the weight of an equal volume of the reference substance. No unit for specific gravity since it is a ratio comparison.
Structure: Particular arrangement of individual crystals, categorized as fine, medium, coarse-grained, or fibrous (separable, divergent, radiating).
Hardness: – Measured on a scale from 1 to 10 using ten minerals, including talc, gypsum, calcite, fluorite, apatite, feldspar, quartz, topaz, corundum, and diamond.

Types of Minerals:

Metallic Minerals:

Metals are hard substances conducting heat and electricity, having a characteristic lustre or shine.
Sub-divided into categories like precious metals, non-ferrous metals, simple metals, rare metals, ferrous metals, light metals, and iron-mixed metals.

Sub-categories:

Precious Metals: Gold, silver, platinum, etc.
Ferrous Metals: Iron and other metals mixed to form various steel types.
Non-Ferrous Metals: Copper, lead, zinc, tin, aluminum, etc.
Light Metals: Aluminium, titanium, magnesium, etc.
Simple Metals: Copper, zinc, lead, tin, iron, mercury, etc.
Iron-mixed Metals: Chromium, cobalt, magnesium, nickel, tungsten, vanadium, etc.
Rare Metals: Uranium, thorium, lithium, beryllium, cerium, lanthanum, etc.

Non-Metallic Minerals:

Definition: Minerals devoid of metal content.
Examples: Limestone, mica, gypsum, coal, and petroleum.

Extraction Techniques:

Mining: Extracting minerals from rocks buried beneath the Earth’s surface.
Drilling: Boring deep wells to retrieve petroleum and natural gas.
Quarrying: Digging out minerals near the surface.

Mineral Distribution:

Rocks: Minerals found in various rock types—igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.
Metallic Minerals: Typically found in igneous and metamorphic formations forming large plateaus.
Examples: Iron-ore deposits in North Sweden, copper, nickel, chromite, and platinum in Ontario, Canada, and sedimentary rock formations containing non-metallic minerals like limestone.
Sedimentary Formations:ExamplesLimestone deposits in the Caucasus region of France, manganese deposits in Georgia and Ukraine, and phosphate beds in Algeria.
Mineral Fuels: Coal and petroleum are found in sedimentary strata.

Iron Ore:

Nature: Metallic mineral found as ores or compounds.
Types: Magnetite (70% iron content), Haematite (60-70% iron content), Limonite (40-60% iron content), Siderite (less than 90% iron content).
Significance: Essential for modern civilization, used in machines, construction, and transport.
Conversion: Can be transformed into cast iron, sheets, magnetic iron, and steel.

Top Five Iron Ore Producing Countries (2020):

First: Australia
Second: Brazil
Third: China
Fourth: India
Fifth: Russia

Distribution of Iron Ore in the World

Country	Region
China	Shenyang region of Manchuria, Wuhan, Tal Yeh in Yangtze valley, Hainan, Hnan, Shandong peninsula, Hangzhou
Russia	Great lakes region – Mesabi, Marquette, Vermillion, Gogebic, and Cuyuna, Alabama state, France-Lorraine, Normandy, Pyrenees, Sweden-Kiruna and Gallivare, Germany-Salzgitter and Seigen, Spain-Bilbao region, UK-Cleveland, Midland, Scotland, Ukraine-Kryvyi Rih, Kerch basin, Kremenchuk region, Tula region-Kursic Magnetic Anomaly, Ural and Siberia region
Africa	Liberia, South Africa, Algeria, Morocco
Australia	Pilbara region, Mount Goldsworthy, Mount Tom Price, Mount Newman, Tailoring peak
South America	Brazil (Minas Gerais region), Orinoco valley in Venezuela, La Sarena in Chile
India	Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Sundargarh in Odisha, Singhbhum region in Jharkhand, Balladila range in Chhattisgarh, Chikmagalur, Chitradurga, Tumkur, and Bellary in Karnataka

Copper

Copper has been used by human being since ancient times. It is found in igneous rocks.
It is used largely in the electrical industry because of its quality of electrical conductivity.
Its increasing demand due to expansion of electrical industry in the 20th century, led to the development of such a technology which made it possible to extract copper from low grade ores.
Copper has been proved useful due to its properties of malleability and ductility. Besides these, it is corrosion resistant and can be mixed with other metals to form copper alloys.

Top Five Copper Producing Countries

Rank	Country
First	Chile
Second	Peru
Third	China
Fourth	Democratic Republic of Congo
Fifth	United States

Distribution of Copper and Bauxite in the World

Country/Region	Copper Center
Chile	Chuquicamata, El-Teniente, Potreillous, Bradue
The USA	Arizona, Morence, Globe, Casa-Grande, Western part from Canadian border in the North to Mexican border in the South
Canada	Sudbury, North, Ontario
Zaire	Karanja district
India	Singhbhum, Hazaribagh in Jharkhand, Khetri, Agunch-Rampur area in Rajasthan
Australia	Mount Morgan, Mount Isa
South Africa	Transvaal, Cape Province

Bauxite

Bauxite is an ore of aluminum, constituting 8% of the Earth’s crust. It is a light and versatile metal, mined by highly mechanized open-cast methods. The main centers for bauxite extraction are:
Bauxite has diverse industrial uses in the aerospace, machine tools, automotive, electrical, and utensil industries.
The aluminum industry, an energy-intensive sector, extracts aluminum from bauxite using electrolyte mixing processes. Bauxite is primarily mined in tropical regions, while aluminum production is concentrated in developed countries with abundant and cheap electrical energy.

Top Five Aluminium Producing Countries (2019)

Rank	Country
First	China
Second	India
Third	Russia
Fourth	Canada
Fifth	UAE

Distribution of Bauxite in the World

Australia is leading producer of bauxite ores in the world. It is mined from Weipa lying East of the gulf of Carpentaria and from Arnhem region
Bauxite extraction in the USA primarily occurs in the Arkansas region, with minor mining activities in Georgia and Alabama. Due to insufficient domestic production, the United States imports bauxite from countries like Jamaica, Suriname, and the Dominican Republic. France possesses substantial bauxite deposits in Brignoles, North-East of Toulon.
Russia does not prioritize bauxite mining, relying on imports from countries such as Guinea, Yugoslavia, Greece, Hungary, and the Caribbean islands to sustain its aluminum industry. Noteworthy bauxite-producing nations in Asia include China, Malaysia, India, Turkey, and Indonesia.
Odisha in India stands out as the largest producer of bauxite in the Arctic region.

Minerals in Antarctica:

The geological understanding of Antarctica suggests the likely presence of various mineral deposits, some potentially substantial.
Notable projections include significant coal deposits in the Transantarctic Mountains and iron resources near the Anarles Mountains of East Antarctica. Additionally, anticipated deposits of iron ore, gold, silver, and oil in commercial quantities enhance the mineral potential of Antarctica.

**Diagrammatic Representation of Distribution of Iron, Copper and Bauxite**

Manganese

Manganese is an important raw material for smelting of fron ore and also used for manufacturing ferro alloys and in dry cell batteries.
Manganese deposits are found in almost all geological formations, however, it is mainly associated with Dharwar system.
South Africa, Australia, China and Brazil, etc are the top producers of manganese and South Africa has the largest reserve of manganese.
The leading exporters of manganese in the world are Australia and Mexico and the chied importer is United States of America (USA)
Manganese are resources in China are mainly distributed across Guangxi, Hunan and Guizhou provinces.

Mica

Mica is a lustrous mineral and it is a bad conductor of heat and electricity
Due to its insulating properties, mica is extensively used in electric appliances. Mica presents itself in the form of thick sheets that can be easily split into thin layers.
This mineral is found in igneous, sedimentary, and rocks shaped under various geological conditions. Natural mica forms metamorphic hexagonal crystals of varying sizes.
Mica is sourced from various countries, including the USA (North Carolina, New Hemisphere), Ukraine, Russia (Northern Siberia, Murmansk, Muscovite), Brazil (Santa-Lusia, Juatero, and Penkha mines in North-East), Republic of South Anca, Tanzania, Zambia, Norway, Canada, and Malagasi.
India, Malagasi, Brazil, and Tanzania are exporting countries, while the USA, United Kingdom, Germany, Poland, France, Belgium, Russia, China, Japan, and Australia are importers. India holds the title of the largest mica producer globally.

Tin

Tin, an essential metal for alloy production, is relatively scarce in its global distribution. Most tin is found in placer deposits in alluvium, notably in the South-East Asian region.
The primary ore of tin is cassiterite or tinstone (SnO), containing up to 75% tin. Tin plating accounts for about 40% of the world’s tin output and is carried out in South Wales and other industrial regions in the USA, Japan, Russia, and Australia.
Approximately 80% of the world’s tin supply comes from alluvial deposits. China boasts the largest tin reserves, followed by Brazil, Malaysia, and Peru. Malaysia is a major tin producer and exporter, with the Kinta Valley alone contributing half the annual output.
In non-Eastern Asian regions, Bolivia and Peru are significant tin producers, with Peru ranking as the third-largest tin producer globally. Nigeria and Zaire are essential tin producers in Africa, with the Bauchi plateau, Jos, and Zaria being tin-producing regions in Nigeria, and Manono and Maniema serving as mining centers in Zaire.
Leading global tin producers include China, Indonesia, Myanmar, Peru, Brazil, Bolivia, and Malaysia. Prominent importers are Germany, Italy, and France.

Chromium

Chromium, a steel-grey, lustrous metal with high polish, is hard and brittle, resistant to tarnishing, and has a high melting point. It can exist in various exposure pathways, such as air, water, soil, food, with ingestion, inhalation, or dermal contact being common.
Chromium is a crucial alloying metal used alongside nickel, cobalt, copper, etc., in metallurgical, refractories, and chemical industries. It enhances strength, hardness, and toughness in alloys.
Leading chromium producers include South Africa, Kazakhstan, and Turkey. Chief importers worldwide are China, Mozambique, Russia, Indonesia, and India.

Zinc

Zinc is commonly found in association with lead, and both minerals are often mined together. It occurs in two types of deposits: primary zinc ore in thin veins called rakes and secondary deposits formed by the weathering of primary mineral veins.
Used in alloys like nickel, brass, silver, and aluminum solder, zinc has versatile applications. Zinc oxide plays a pivotal role in manufacturing various commercial products such as paints, rubber, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, plastics, inks, soaps, textiles, and electrical equipment.
Galvanization, the process of applying a protective zinc coating to steel or iron, serves to prevent rusting. Zinc ore, commonly found as zinc carbonate (calamine) or smithsonite, is crucial in the production of zinc.
Leading zinc producers globally include China, Australia, and Peru, with other significant contributors being Japan, Mexico, Spain, Zaire, and Poland. Chief zinc exporters include Canada, Australia, Peru, Mexico, Spain, and Zaire.

Lead

Lead, another essential mineral, is extracted from lead ore, a chemical mixture of pure metal and sulfur.
This soft, silvery-white or greyish metal is malleable, ductile, dense, and a poor conductor of electricity. Lead finds application in various industries, such as car batteries, pigments, ammunition, cable sheathing, weight for lifting, weight belts for diving, lead crystal glass, radiation protection, soldering, and storage of corrosive liquids.
Widely distributed globally, lead ore is prominently sourced from China, Australia, the USA, Peru, Mexico, Kazakhstan, Russia, and India.

Cobalt

Hard and often found in a distinctive blue color, cobalt shares chemical properties with iron ore and nickel. Despite making up only 0.001% of Earth’s crust, cobalt is present in plants, animals, air, water, soil, and rocks.
Cobalt is extensively used in alloys, superalloys for aircraft engines, gas turbine high-speed steels, corrosion-resistant alloys, cemented carbides, magnetic recording media, and as a catalyst for hydrogenation.
The Democratic Republic of Congo hosts the world’s largest cobalt reserves and accounted for over two-thirds of global cobalt production in 2021. Major importers include China, the United States, Japan, the Netherlands, and Singapore.

Nickel

A metallic mineral associated with copper, uranium, and other metals, nickel is used for metal plating.
The chief ore of nickel, known as pentlandite, is utilized for manufacturing nickel steel, crucial in the production of armored plates, motor cars, bulletproof jackets, naval construction, storage batteries, and catalysts for hydrogenation.
Leading nickel producers are Indonesia, the Philippines, and Russia.

Precious Metals

Some vital precious metals include gold, which occurs in alluvial placer deposits or as reefs or underground lodes in nature.

Gold

Gold serves various purposes, from making ornaments to applications in electronics, pharmaceutical manufacturing, and more. The Witwatersrand in South Africa is renowned for being the richest area globally in terms of gold deposits.
Gold, one of the leading producers globally, is discovered in Kalgoorlie, Coolgardie, and California in the USA, as well as in Johannesburg, Kimberley, and Boksburg in South Africa. Mount Morgan in Australia and Alaska are also significant locations.

Silver

Silver, with a diverse range of uses, occurs in a pure state and in combination with gold, lead, and copper. Its primary ore is argentite, and it is utilized in making coins, ornaments, crafts, silver plating, and electroplating.
Major silver producers include Mexico, Peru, China, Australia, Chile, and Poland. Important silver mines are situated in Mexico, Canada (Ontario, Chihuahua, Hidalgo, British Columbia, Quebec), the USA (Utah, Montana, Arizona, Colorado), Australia (Mount Isa, Kalgoorlie, Broken Hill), and South Africa (Transvaal and Natal province).

Diamond

Diamond, the purest form of carbon and the hardest substance, is sourced from Kimberlite, conglomerate beds, and alluvial gravels. Diamonds are used for cutting glass, drilling in rocks, polishing, and making ornaments.
The Republic of Congo is the largest producer of industrial diamonds, and other major producers include South Africa, Australia, Ghana, Botswana, and Angola. Key diamond mines are found in South Africa (Johannesberg, Kimberley, Cape Town), Congo (Katanga plateau), and India (Pannas and Golconda mines).

Platinum

Platinum, a rare mineral known as White Gold, is utilized for making ornaments, laboratory instruments, and has various industrial and commercial applications. It is commonly used as a catalyst, particularly in anti-pollution devices for automobile manufacturing, and also in dentistry for dental fillings. Leading platinum producers are South Africa, Russia, Zimbabwe, Canada, and the USA. The world’s largest resource of platinum group metals is the Merensky Reef in the Bushveld complex, South Africa.
Minerals used for gems are typically hard and set in various styles for jewelry. Copper, another versatile metal, is used in everything from coins to pipes. Silicon, crucial for the computer industry, is obtained from quartz. Aluminum, derived from its ore bauxite, finds applications in automobiles, airplanes, the bottling industry, buildings, and even kitchenware.

Top three countries of the world in terms of Minerals Production

Rank	Minerals	First	Second	Third
1	Garnet	India	China	Australia
2	Graphite	China	Brazil	Madagascar
3	Gypsum	China	Iran	America
4	Molybdenum	China	Chile	America
5	Tungsten	China	Vietnam	Russia
6	Zirconium	Australia	South Africa	China
7	Chromium	South Africa	Kazakhstan	Turkey
8	Antimony	China	Russia	Tajikistan
9	Barites	China	India	Morocco
10	Rock Phosphate	China	Morocco and America

Conservation of Minerals

Minerals are non-renewable resources. It takes thousands of years for the formation and concentration of minerals.
The rate of formation is much smaller than the rate at which
Economic development has brought with it increasing consumption of all types of minerals leading to increase in prices
It is necessary to reduce wastage in the process ofmining
Recycling of metals is another way in which the mineral resources can be conserved.

Uses of Minerals

Minerals	Important Producing Countries
Aluminium	China, Russia, India, Canada, UAE, Australia
Tungsten	China, Russia
Antimony	China, South Africa
Quartz	Turkey, India, Italy, China
Feldspar	Norway
Olivine	Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China
Dolomite	India, China, Brazil, Turkey
Talc	Brazil, Pakistan, Jamaica, Iran, Thailand, Spain, Germany, Italy, England, Ireland, Canada, USA
Gypsum	Australia, South Africa, China, Indonesia
Zircon	Argentina, Brazil, India, Madagascar, Russia, USA
Sillimanite	South Africa, USA, France
Barite	China, India, Morocco, USA
Sandstone	India, Brazil, Norway
China Clay	USA, Belgium, UK, Brazil, Ukraine
Asbestos	Russia, Kazakhstan
Titanium	China, Japan, Russia, Saudi Arabia
Magnesium	China, Russia, USA

Energy Resources

Energy is an important factor in an economy. The demand for energy has increased with socio-economic development in the world. Some of the energy resources are exhaustible Somen-renewable, eg, coal and mineral oil out many are renewable, e.g. water and solar energy
Potential of water energy is more in those reg Phere water discharge of the rivers is high, rainfall is heavy and running water is available throughout the year.
Solar energy is more dependable and univers applicable.
The increasing demand of the energy and the energy crisis of 1973, in the world have giver impetus to research and development of non-conventional sources of energy.

Classification of Energy Resource

Energy plays a vital role in our lives. We need energy for industry, agriculture, transport, communication and defence.
It may be broadly categorised as conventional non-conventional sources

Conventional Sources

Conventional sources of energy are those, which have been in common use for long time.Firewood and fossil fuels are the two main conventional energy sources. Firewood and cattle dung cake are most common in rural India.

Firewood

More than 70% of the energy needs in rural households are fulfilled by firewood and coal, as estimated. Firewood, widely utilized for cooking and heating, contributes to over 50% of the energy consumed by villagers in our country.
Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, and natural gas serve as the primary sources of conventional energy, originating from the remains of plants and animals buried for millions of years. However, the reserves of these minerals are limited, and their consumption rate by the growing global population surpasses their formation rate, leading to potential exhaustion.

Coal

Coal, the most abundant fossil fuel, plays a crucial role as a domestic fuel, in industrial processes like iron and steel production, steam engines, and electricity generation. Despite being fundamental to the industrial revolution, its significance has diminished with the advent of mineral oil and natural gas.
Found in sedimentary rock seams, coal’s key attributes include combustibility and volatility. The majority of coal formed during the carboniferous period, known as Buried Sunshine due to the submergence of natural vegetation.
According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates for 2022, the top five coal producers were China, India, Indonesia, Australia, and the USA. In India, coal-producing regions include Raniganj, Jharia, Dhanbad, and Bokaro in Jharkhand.

Coal-Producing Regions of the World

Country	Region
China	Datong in Shansi province, Huo-Lin GHe in Inner Mongolia, Huainan and Huaibei in Anhui. Xuzhou in Jiangsu, Lipanshin in Guizhou, and Kailuan in Heger province.
The USA	Western Pennsylvania to Alabama, Kentucky, and Western Virginia in the Appalachian coal region. Illinois, Utah, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico.
Europe	Franco-Belgian coalfields, Campine-Limburg coalfield, Ruh, Saar, Silesia, Saxony, and Pilsen. Pennine ranges and Scottish highland.
Australia	New South Wales, Queensland, and Western Australia (Victoria State).
India	Raniganj, Jharia, Giridih, Ramgarh in Jharkhand. Wardha Valley in Maharashtra, Umaria, and Sohagpur region of Madhya Pradesh.
South Africa	Transvaal and Natal States

Coal Types Based on Carbon Content

Coal is categorized into various types based on its carbon content. Here are the main classifications:

Anthracite:

Description: Very hard, shiny, and free of impurities.
Carbon Content: Approximately 90%.
Characteristics: Produces little smoke and leaves minimal ash after burning. Considered the highest quality coal with limited reserves.

Bituminous:

Description: Black and shiny coal.
Carbon Content: Ranges from 70 to 90%.
Characteristics: Generates a smoky flame and leaves behind a significant amount of ash.
Named bituminous due to the production of tar (bitumen) when heated. Found in larger quantities, especially in coal obtained from Gondwana formation.

Lignite:

Description: Also known as brown coal.
Carbon Content: Ranges from 45 to 70%.
Characteristics: Burns with high smoky flames. Originates more recently than anthracite and bituminous coals, containing a higher proportion of vegetal matter.

Peat:

Description: Represents the initial stage in coal formation from vegetation.
Characteristics: Light brown color with high humidity content.
Industrial Importance: Considered the most inferior coal and lacks significant industrial relevance.

Petroleum

The term “petroleum” originates from the Latin words Petra, meaning rock, and oleam, meaning oil.
Crude oil is sent to refineries, where it undergoes processing to produce various products such as diesel, petrol, kerosene, wax, plastics, and lubricants.
Petroleum and its derivatives are often referred to as Black Gold due to their high value.

Top Five Petroleum Producing Countries

Rank	Country
First	United States
Second	Saudi Arabia
Third	Russia
Forth	Canada
Fifth	China

Major Mining Centres of Petroleum

The primary mining centers of petroleum worldwide include:

USA Appalachian, Gulf coast, and California regions.
Saudi Arabia Dhahran, Dammam, Ghawar, and the oil refinery center at Ras Tanura.
Kuwait Burgan fields (world’s largest reserve), Volga-Ural region of Russia, Baku region in Azerbaijan (Caucasus region).
Iraq Kirkuk, Mosul, Basra, and Tikrit.
Iran Lali, Karanshah, Naft Sefid, Gachsaran (oil from these regions is refined at one of the largest oil refineries in the world).
Venezuela Lake Maracaibo region and Orinoco basin.

**Diagrammatic Representation of World Wide Distribution of Coal and Petroleum**

Natural gas

Natural gas is often found alongside petroleum deposits and is released during the extraction of crude oil. This versatile resource serves as both domestic and industrial fuel, offering energy and serving as a raw material in the petrochemical industry. Known for its environmental friendliness due to low carbon dioxide emissions, natural gas is considered a fuel for the present century, with Russia holding the largest reserves globally.
Significant natural gas reserves are also found domestically, including the Krishna-Godavari basin, Mumbai High, allied fields along the West Coast, Gulf of Cambay, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Top Five Natural Gas Producing Countries

Rank	Country
First	United States
Second	Russia
Third	Iran
Forth	Canada
Fifth	Algeria

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) stands out as an eco-friendly automobile fuel, causing less pollution than petroleum and diesel.

Electricity

Electricity, a vital index of development, is generated through hydroelectricity (using running water to drive turbines) and thermal power (burning fossil fuels to drive turbines).
Thermal power stations in India, numbering over 310, utilize coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

Hydel Power

Hydel Power, generated by the fall of stored rain or river water through dams, produces hydroelectricity. Norway pioneered hydroelectricity, with the discharged water used for irrigation. China, Canada, Brazil, USA, Russia, India, Norway, and Japan are major hydel power producers.

Hydel Energy

It is the source of clean energy, which does not pollute the environment. It can be transmitted to the long distance through wires and cables but there could be transmission losses if transmitted for very long distance.
The leading producers of hydel power in the world are China, Canada, Brazil, USA, Russia, India, Norway, Japan, etc.
Some important hydel power stations in India are Bhakra Nangal, Gandhi Sagar, Nagarjunsagar and Damodar Valley Projects.

Non-Conventional Sources:

The increasing use of fossil fuels raises concerns about depletion, rising prices, and environmental impact. As a response, exploration and adoption of non-conventional energy sources become essential for sustainable development.
Thus, the urgent requirement arises to embrace renewable energy sources such as solar energy, wind, tide, biomass, and energy from waste materials. These sources are commonly known as non-conventional sources of energy.

Solar Energy

Solar energy stands out as the most widely available and inexhaustible source of energy.
Direct conversion of solar energy into electricity is possible through photovoltaic cells, primarily composed of silicon—an abundant element worldwide.
The technology harnessing solar energy proves especially beneficial for tropical countries blessed with ample sunshine.
Solar energy finds application in various forms, including solar heaters, solar cookers, solar dryers, community lighting, and traffic signals.

Top Five Solar Energy Producing Countries

Rank	Country
First	China
Second	USA
Third	Japan
Forth	Germany
Fifth	India

The International Solar Alliance (ISA)

The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is a treaty based inter-governmental organisation working to create a global market system to tap the benefits of solar power and promote clean energy applications.
The ISA aims to pave the way for future solar generation, storage and technologies for member countries needs by mobilising over USD 1000 billion by 2030 and reduce dependence of fossil fuels. The member countries are those which are located between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn also known as Sunshine Countries. Its headquarters is located in Gurugram, Haryana.

Wind Energy

In modern time wind mills, the high speed rotate the wind mill, which is connected to a generator to produce electricity.
Wind farms having clusters of such wind mills passes where strong and steady winds flow are located in coastal regions and in mountain Netherlands, Wind farms are found in the Wind fay, Denmark, UK, USA and Spain are noted for their wind energy production.
India has great potential of wind power. The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from Nagercoil to Madurai. Apart from these Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep hav important wind farms

Top Five Wind Energy Producing Countries

Rank	Country
first	China
Second	USA
Third	Germany
Fourth	India
Fifth	Spain

Biogas

Transforming organic waste like deceased plant and animal material, animal dung, and kitchen waste into a gaseous fuel known as biogas is possible.
Bacteria decompose the organic waste within biogas digesters, releasing biogas—a combination of methane and carbon dioxide.
Biogas serves as an excellent fuel for cooking and lighting, simultaneously yielding substantial amounts of organic manure annually.
Plants utilizing cattle dung, termed gobu gas plants in rural India, offer dual advantages to farmers by providing energy and enhancing the quality of manure.
Biogas also prevents the loss of trees and manure due to the burning of fuelwood and cow dung cakes, generating no harmful CO2 emissions.

Geothermal Power

The heat energy derived from the Earth is known as geothermal energy.
As we go deeper into the Earth, the temperature in the interior steadily rises. At times, this heat energy surfaces as hot springs. It can be utilized to generate power. Geothermal energy, in the form of hot springs, has been employed for cooking, heating, and bathing for several years.
The USA has the world’s largest geothermal power plants, followed by New Zealand, Iceland, the Philippines, and Central America.
Two experimental projects in India aim to harness geothermal energy—one in the Parvati valley near Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh and the other in the Puga valley, Ladakh.

Tidal Energy

Tidal energy, generated from tides, can be harnessed by constructing dams at narrow sea openings. During high tide, the energy of the tides turns the turbine in the dam, producing electricity.
The first tidal energy station was built in France.
The Sinwa Lake Tidal Power Station in South Korea stands as the world’s largest tidal power station. Major producers of tidal energy include South Korea, France, the United Kingdom, and Canada.
In India, the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat on the Western coast, and the Gangetic delta in the Sunderban regions of West Bengal provide ideal conditions for utilizing tidal energy.

Nuclear or Atomic Energy

Nuclear power is obtained from the energy stored in the nuclei of atoms of naturally occurring radioactive elements like uranium and thorium.
These fuels undergo nuclear fission in nuclear reactors, emitting power.
The leading producers of nuclear power are the USA and Europe.
In India, Rajasthan and Jharkhand have large deposits of uranium, while thorium is found in abundance in the monazite sands of Kerala and Andhra Pradesh.

Top Five Nuclear Energy Producing Countries

Rank	Country
First	United States
Second	France
Third	China
Fourth	Japan
Fifth	Russia

Energy Crisis

US oil consumption was high in the early 1970s, while US oil production declined. In 1973, 36% of energy consumption was foreign oil, up from 22% in 1970.
Arab-Israeli conflicts had escalated, causing tension between the US and Arab nations. In 1973, an international oil embargo ensued.
Middle Eastern countries, engaged in religious and political conflicts, halted petroleum exports to Western nations, including the United States and the Netherlands, in protest over their involvement in Arab-Israeli conflicts. The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) cartel contributed to rising gas prices in the early 1970s.
OPEC, formed in 1960, aimed to establish a common policy, set trade rules, and determine prices for its vast fuel supplies. Its member nations produce over half of the world’s oil and supply approximately 80% of oil imported by non-member nations.
OPEC, comprising Algeria, Ecuador, Gabon, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Venezuela, has become a highly influential group in world politics due to its significant oil supply. More than half of its members are Middle Eastern countries.
US policy flaws were acknowledged as a major contributor to the crisis, with the Arab oil embargo being just one aspect.

Prelims Facts

Which country is the largest reporter of Gold to India?Silent UPPSC 2013 WBCS (P) 2018
Asia’s biggest gold market is located in -Beijing, China (UPPSC (M) 2017
German Silver is an alloy of which metals? Copper, Zinc, and Nickel (LAS (Pre) 2007
The largest producer of Aluminium in the world is -China (BPSC (Per) 2015
Malaysia the “Kinta Valley’ is famous for -Tin production (UPPSC (Pre) 2020)
The leading producer of Tin in the world is -China (UPPSC (Pre) 2010)
Which country is the largest producer of diamond? -Russia (UPPSC (Pre) 2012)
India has the world’s largest deposit of -Mica (Odisha PSC (Pre) 2016
Which country is the largest producer of Bauxite? -Australia (UPPSC (Pre) 2015)
Manganese is an important mineral used for – Making Iron and Steel (MPPSC (Pre) 2011
Name the country where there are no known mineral deposits. -Switzerland (UPPSC (Mains) 2021)
World’s largest reserve of Uranium is found in -Australia (UPPSC (Pre) 2015]
Postmasburg and its adjacent areas of South Africa is major producers of which minerals? – Manganese (UPPSC (Pre) 2020)
Which group of minerals represents non-ferrous metals -Nickel, Zinc, Copper, Aluminium [RAS/RTS (Pre) 2013)
The famous ‘Ruhr Coalfield’ is situated in which country. Germany (UPPSC Pre 2002
Karagonda Coal basin belongs to which nation? -Kazakhstan (Odisha PSC (Pre) 2015
Which variety of coal has the highest carbon content? – Anthracite [MPSC (Pre) 2008)
The three leading producers of petroleum in the world in descending order are- USA, Saudi Arabia, and Russia [UPPSC (Mains) 2008)
World’s largest reserves of minerals and oil are in – Venezuela [UPPSC (Pre) 2012)
Where is Ras Tanura Oil Refinery located? – Saudi Arabia [MPPSC (Pre) 2017]
Which Country is the largest producer and consumer of gasohal? – USA [UPPSC (Main) 2011]
In which country mineral oil was first commercially drilled in 1857? – Romania [RAS/RTS (Pre) 2013]
Radium is extracted from the mines of – Pitchblende [UPPSC (Pre) 2015]
Compressed Natural Gas is mainly composed of – Methane [UPPSC (Pre) 2022]
Which source of energy is not ultimately derived from Sun’s energy? – Nuclear Energy [UPPSC (Pre) 2022]
The world’s biggest solar power station is situated in – Rajasthan, India [WBCS (Pre) 2011
Which crop group cannot be used for biofuel production? – Lentil, Sugarbeet and Wheat [RAS/RTS (Pre) 2015)
First Tidal Power Plant was built in – France [IPSC (Pre) 2010

UPSC NCERT Practice Questions

1. Which of the following is one of the ores of iron mineral? Manipur PSC (Pre) 2016, JPSC (Pre) 2021-

(a) Malachite

(b) Bauxite

(d) Chromite

2. Which one of the following pair (s) is/are not correctly matched? Countries UPPSC (Pre) 2020

Countries Iron Ore Producing Areas

(a) Kazakhstan Karaganda

(b) Ukraine Krivoy Rog

(d) France Pyrenees

3. ‘Marquette rangé’ in the United States of America is famous for which mineral? MPPSC (Pre) 2022

(a) Uranium

(b) Copper

(d) Iron ore

4. Bauxite is the ore of MPPSC (Pre) 2014

(a) iron

(b) zinc

(d) aluminum

5. Which continent is the largest producer of gold and diamond?

(a) Asia

(b) North America

(d) Africa

6. Manganese is used for making MPPSC (Pre) 2011

(a) iron and steel

(b) paint

(d) All of these

7. India has the world’s largest deposit of JPSC (Pre) 2012, Odisha PSC (Pre) 2016

(a) copper

(b) mica

(d) uranium

8. Malaysia, the ‘Kinta valley’ is famous for UPPSC (Pre) 2020

(a) rubber production

(b) tea production

(d) coffee production

9. The Broken hills famous for zinc and lead are located in

(a) Turkey

(b) France

(d) Australia

10. ‘Evaporite’ is

(a) a rock

(b) a meteorite

(d) an evaporimeter

11. Which of the following pair (s) is/are correctly matched? UPPSC (Pre) 2011

(a) Copper: Arizona

(b) Coal : Carajas

(d) Petroleum : Donbas

12. Asia’s biggest gold market is UPPSC (Mains) 2017

(a) Jakarta, Indonesia

(b) Beijing, China

(d) Meerut, India

13. Which one of the following minerals contains mostly silica?

(a) Mica

(b) Quartz

(d) Pyroxene

14. The most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust is Manipur PSC (Pre) 2010

(a) zinc

(b) copper

(d) iron

15. Match List I with List Il and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists.

List I (Minerals)

A. Mineral Oil

B. Copper

C. Manganese

D. Bauxite

List II (Major Producers)

1. Zambia

2. Guyana

3. Venezuela

4. Gabon

Codes

(a) 3 1 4 2

(b) 3 1 2 4

(d) 1 3 4 2

16. Name a country where there are no known mineral deposits. UPPSC (Mains) 2021

(a) France

(b) Switzerland

(d) Peru

17. Match List I with List Il and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists. UPPSC (Pre) 1999

ist I (Naturally Occurring Substances)	List II (Elements)
A. Diamond	1. Calcium
B. Marble	2. Silicon
C. Sand	3. Aluminium
D. Ruby	4. Carbon

18. Which one of the following pair (s) is are not correctly matched? UPPSC (Pre) 2013

Country	Resource
(a) Bolivia	Tin
(b) Brazil	Iron ore
(c) Mexico	Silver
(d) Peru	Nitrate

19. Which region is known for its metals in South America?

(a) Plateau of Brazil

(b) Bolivia plateau

(d) Orinoco basin

20.Famous ‘Ruhr coalfield’ is situated in which of the following countries? UPPSC (Pre) 2022

(a) France

(b) Germany

(d) Great Britain

Know Right Answer

1 (C)

2 (c)

3 (d)

4 (d)

5 (d)

6 (a)

7 (b)

8 (c)

9 (d)

10 (a)

11 (a)

12 (b)

13 (d)

14 (c)

15 (b)

16 (b)

17 (d)

18 (d)

19 (a)

20 (b)

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1: What are minerals?

A1: Minerals are naturally occurring substances that have a definite chemical composition and a crystalline internal structure. They are formed through geological processes and can be found in the Earth’s crust. Minerals serve as the building blocks of rocks and are essential for various industrial, economic, and environmental purposes.

Q2: How are minerals classified?

A2: Minerals are classified based on their chemical composition and crystal structure. The two main categories of minerals are:

a. Metallic Minerals: These minerals contain metals in their chemical composition and are often associated with ores. Examples include iron ore (hematite), copper ore (chalcopyrite), and aluminum ore (bauxite).

b. Non-Metallic Minerals: These minerals lack metallic elements in their composition and are used for various industrial purposes. Examples include limestone, gypsum, and mica.

Q3: What is the significance of energy resources in the context of geography?

A3: Energy resources play a crucial role in shaping the geography of a region and influencing its socio-economic development. The availability and utilization of energy resources impact factors such as industrialization, transportation, and overall infrastructure. There are two main types of energy resources:

a. Conventional Sources: These include fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. The extraction and use of these sources contribute to environmental challenges like air pollution and climate change.

b. Non-Conventional Sources: These include renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal energy. Their sustainable nature makes them environmentally friendly alternatives to conventional sources.

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UPSC NCERT Notes – Geography – Minerals and Energy Resources