UPSC NCERT Notes – Modern History – Indian National Movement Phase – I (1885-1919)

The National Movement in India shaped a significant age in history as it assisted with welding different individuals and segments of society into one country. It built solidarity and friendship among the people and strengthened the feeling of national unity and integrity among Indians.  

Emergence of Nationalism in India

• The latter half of the 19th century marked the onset of national political awareness and the development of an organized National Movement in India.
• During this period, a fresh sense of unity and identification with the same nation also surfaced, steering the movement towards the quest for Swaraj or Home Rule.
• Various factors contributed to the ascent of nationalism in India, including:

Administrative and Economic Unification in India

• The process of modernization was a crucial element in the colonial administrative framework, and ironically, it played a role in the emergence of Indian nationalism.
•  The establishment of political unity contributed to a sense of collective purpose and identity.
• The British economic policies had detrimental effects on various segments of Indian society, including peasants, the middle class, workers, and industrialists.
• The significant economic drain, commercialization of agriculture, and periodic famines resulting from land settlements proved disastrous.

The discriminatory economic and fiscal measures imposed by the British fueled economic nationalism in India. It became evident that colonial rule was a primary factor in India’s economic underdevelopment.

• Consequently, the nationalist spirit gained considerable momentum through this process.

Spread of Western Education and Ideology

• The adoption of the English language as the medium of instruction in schools and colleges in 1835 elevated it to the language of the educated elite in India.
• The introduction of a modern education system created opportunities for the assimilation of contemporary Western ideas, leading Indians to recognize the adverse effects of foreign rule. This, in turn, steered Indian political thinking in a new direction.

The liberal and radical ideas propagated by European intellectuals such as Milton, Bentham, Rousseau, and Voltaire influenced Indians, especially the intelligentsia, with concepts of liberty, nationality, and self-government.

Development in Communication Infrastructure

• During Dalhousie’s rule, the development of railways, a modern postal system, and the introduction of the electric telegraph played a crucial role in unifying the country. The railways fostered increased passenger traffic, facilitating greater interaction among people and maintaining regular contact.

Emergence of the Modern Press

• The rapid expansion of the press proved instrumental for nationalist Indians, enabling the dissemination of patriotic messages and modern liberal ideas. 
• This growth helped build a robust public opinion against the excesses and inequalities of colonial administration.
• Newspapers such as The Hindu, Patriot, Amrita Bazaar Patrika, Kesari, and Mahratta advocated nationalist ideals.

Rediscovery of India’s Historical Heritage

• European scholars like Max Muller, Monier Williams, Sassoon, Roth, and Indian scholars such as RG Bhandarkar, RL Mitra, and Swami Vivekananda conducted historical research that unveiled India’s rich socio-political, economic, and cultural heritage. This exploration instilled a new sense of self-respect and confidence among nationalists.

Notable literary works, such as Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s Anand Math, exposed the true character of British rule, while Dinbandhu Mitra’s Neel Darpan highlighted the exploitation by indigo planters. Bharatendu Harishchandra advocated the use of Swadeshi products.

Socio-Religious Reforms

• Various socio-religious reform movements, including Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, and the Ramakrishna Mission, were initiated to bring about positive changes in society.
• In the religious domain, the reform movements scrutinized practices such as religious superstition, idolatry, polytheism, and the concept of hereditary priesthood. Additionally, these movements actively criticized the caste system, untouchability, and various social and legal inequalities. Notably, figures like Swami Dayanand, who was a pioneer in using the term “Swaraj,” played a pivotal role in fostering nationalist sentiments.
• Numerous Arya Samajis were at the forefront of the national movement and played a significant role in the emergence of extremism within the Indian National Congress.

Emergence of the Urban Middle-Class Intelligentsia

• The introduction of Western education, coupled with British administrative and economic innovations, gave rise to a new urban middle-class intelligentsia. 
• This class, closely connected to the ruling class and well-versed in British imperialistic policies, took a leading role in nationalist movements.

Lord Lytton’s Reactive Policies

• The highly costly Second Afghan War (1878-80), funded from Indian revenues, along with the abolition of import duties on British textiles and the Arms Act of 1878 (aimed at disarming the Indian population), led to widespread discontent against British rule.
• Another controversial move by Viceroy Lord Lytton was the reduction of the age limit (from 21 to 19) for the Indian Civil Services Examination, held exclusively in London. In response, the Indian Association launched a significant agitation, led by SN Bannerjee and Lalmohan Ghosh.

The Grand Durbar organized by Lord Lytton in 1877 at Delhi, proclaiming Queen Victoria’s assumption of the Imperial title, coincided with a severe famine in the country, further intensifying discontent among the population.

Role of Press and Literature

• The Vernacular Press Act, which initially restricted the freedom of the Indian Press (later repealed by Lord Ripon), was colloquially known as the Gagging Act.
• To circumvent the constraints imposed by the Vernacular Press Act, Amrita Bazaar Patrika promptly transformed into an English publication. The establishment of the newspaper Hindu in Madras also emerged as a response to Lytton’s Press Act.

The Ilbert Bill Controversy (1883)

• Officially named the Criminal Procedure Amendment Code Bill, Sir Courtenay Ilbert (law member in the Governor-General Executive Council) introduced it in the Governor-General’s Legislative Council in February 1883.
• The bill aimed to grant Indian District Magistrates and Session judges the authority to adjudicate criminal cases involving European and British offenders. The bill triggered a robust protest movement by members of the European community, who rallied against it.
• Lord Ripon had to revise the bill, now providing European-British subjects accused of criminal offenses the right to opt for a trial by jury, with at least half of the members being Europeans or Americans.
• The Ilbert Bill Controversy served as an awakening for Indians and heightened the burgeoning sense of unity and nationalism among them.

Role of the Educated Middle Class

• The advancement and nurturing of Indian nationalism were primarily credited to the ‘educated middle classes,’ encompassing the professional classes, the English-educated elite, and the intelligentsia.
• The emerging group exhibited a crucial characteristic, notably the substantial inclusion of Indians who had acquired proficiency in English, been influenced by British rule, and engaged in professions such as law, teaching, and journalism.
• Fueled by a sense of national consciousness and pride in India’s illustrious history, the middle class initiated constitutional agitation for political rights.
• Contrary to having roots in industry or commerce, this class was anchored in traditional landholding, government service, or professions regarding its social and economic foundations.

The educated middle class aspired to emulate the role played by the Western middle class in transitioning from feudal to modern society, involving renaissance, reformation, the democratization of political institutions, and rapid industrialization.

• Many educated Indians actively worked towards disseminating English education among the masses.
• Subsequently, they ardently advocated for the implementation of compulsory elementary education. The social composition and perspective of this educated middle class markedly differed from that of the princes, chiefs, and zamindars who had previously spearheaded resistance movements against the British.

The then Viceroy of India, Lord Dufferin, once remarked that this educated middle class constituted a microscopic minority and did not represent the masses. While indeed a minority, it was a segment that could not be disregarded.

• During the 19th century, this class made a significant contribution to bringing religious and social reforms, writing patriotic songs, plays, and novels, preparing an economic critique of British rule, and establishing political organizations.

Political Associations Before 1885

• Before the establishment of the Indian National Congress in India, there were various associations had been established in India. These are as follows

Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha

• Established in 1836, Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha stands as the inaugural political association formed in India. The founding members included Dwarkanath Tagore, Kasinath Roy, and Prasanna Kumar Tagore.
• The primary objective of this association was to bring the grievances of India to the attention of the British Government and advocate for remedial measures.

Landholders’ Society

• The Landholders’ Society, founded in 1837, marked the earliest organized political activity in India.
• Comprising landholders from Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa (now Odisha), its main goal was to safeguard the interests of its class.
• Initially named the Zamindari Association, it was established by Dwarkanath Tagore in collaboration with Prasanna Kumar Tagore, Radhakanta Deb, Ramkamal Sen, and Bhabani Charan Mitra.

Bengal British India Society

• Established in Calcutta (now Kolkata) in 1843, the Bengal British India Society is recognized as the second political association formed in British India. Its mission extended beyond specific class interests, aiming to safeguard and advance the general public’s welfare.

British Indian Association

• In 1851, the Landholders’ Society and Bengal British India Society merged, giving rise to a new entity known as the British Indian Association. This association played a prominent role in the political landscape before the 1857 Revolt. Radhakanta Deb served as its first President, and Debendranath Tagore was the inaugural General Secretary. The Hindu Patriot, its official mouthpiece, stood out as the most influential newspaper of the era.

The Bombay Association

• Founded by Jagannath Shankarsheth on August 26, 1852, the Bombay Association marked the first political organization in the Bombay Presidency. Naoroji Furdunji played a crucial role in drafting its petition to the British Parliament in 1853.

East India Association

• Dadabhai Naoroji established the East India Association (EIA) in 1866 in collaboration with Indians and retired British officials in London. Lord Lyveden served as the first President of the Association. The EIA served as a platform for discussions on Indian matters and ideas, offering representation for Indians to the government.

Madras Native Association

• Established in 1852 by the merchant Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty, who also served as its inaugural President, the Madras Native Association holds the distinction of being the first Indian Political Organisation in the Madras Presidency. Functioning as a platform, it provided educated Indians with a voice to protest against British injustices, often engaging in discussions with Christian missionaries.

Indian League

• Founded by Sisir Kumar Ghosh in 1875, the Indian League aimed to foster a stronger sense of nationalism and promote political education. Sisir Kumar Ghosh, a prominent Indian journalist and one of the founders of the Amrita Bazaar Patrika newspaper, played a key role in establishing the league.

Indian Association

• Established in 1876 by Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose, the Indian Association succeeded the Indian League. It sought to attract not only the middle classes but also the masses by keeping a low membership fee. In a short period, the Indian Association emerged as the focal point for the educated community in Bengal, with branches extending beyond Bengal’s borders.

Poona Sarvajanik Sabha

• Founded in 1867 by Mahadeo Govind Ranade, SH Chiplunkar, and Ganesh Vasudeo Joshi, the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha aimed to act as a bridge between the government and the people. Its purpose was to facilitate communication and collaboration for the greater welfare of society.
• In 1875, the organization submitted a petition to the House of Commons, advocating for India’s direct representation in the British Parliament.

Madras Mahajana Sabha

• Established in 1884, the Madras Mahajana Sabha, a nationalist organization based in the Madras Presidency, was founded by M Veeraraghavachariar, G Subramania Iyer, and P Anandacharlu. 
• It played a pivotal role in paving the way for South Indians’ contribution to India’s national freedom. From 1920 onwards, the Madras Mahajana Sabha developed a close relationship with the Indian National Congress.

Bombay Presidency Association

• Founded in 1885 by Pherozeshah Mehta, KT Telang, and Badruddin Tyabji, the Bombay Presidency Association aimed to promote public interests. It emerged as a response to the reactionary policies of Lord Lytton and the Ilbert Bill Controversy. Pherozeshah Mehta served as its first President.

Pre-Congress political associations organized various campaigns in reaction to British policies. These included:

•  Advocating for the imposition of import duty on cotton (1875).
•  Proposing an All India Fund for Political Agitation.
•  Demanding the Indianization of Government Service (1878-79).
•  Conducting a campaign in Britain to support the Pro-India party.
•  Protesting against Lord Lytton’s Afghan campaign.
•  Opposing the Vernacular Press Act (1878).
•  Resisting the Arms Act (1878).
•  Protesting against plantation labor conditions.
• Opposing the Inland Emigration Act.
•  Supporting the Ilbert Bill.

Commissions/Acts Related to Indian Civil Services

Sir Charles Aitchison Commission (1886):

• Appointed by Lord Dufferin to address the demand for simultaneous examinations and the lowering of the maximum age, the Sir Charles Aitchison Commission recommended dropping the terms “covenanted” and “uncovenanted.” It proposed dividing services into three classes: (1) Imperial Indian Civil Services, (2) Provincial, and (3) Subordinate Service.
• The first class was to be recruited in England, and the latter two were to be recruited in India exclusively from Indians.
• The commission suggested fixing the minimum and maximum age limits at 19 and 23 years, respectively.
• It rejected the idea of simultaneously holding examinations in both India and England and recommended the abolition of statutory Civil Services.

Montague-Chelmsford Commission (1919):

• This commission conceded to the demand for holding examinations simultaneously in India and England. It recommended that one-third of the superior posts in the Indian Civil Services be recruited in India, with this proportion increasing by 1.5% annually.

LEE Commission (1923):

• The LEE Commission recommended that the Secretary of State continue to recruit the Indian Civil Services, the Irrigation Branch of the Service of Engineers, and the Indian Forest Services. Based on the Government of India Act, 1919, it also suggested the establishment of a Public Service Commission.

Government of India Act (1935):

• This act made provisions for the establishment of a Federal Public Service Commission. Despite these reforms, the Indian Civil Services retained its essentially colonial character, serving as the proverbial “Steel Frame” of British rule in India. 
• However, with the advent of independent India’s Constitution, significant changes were made to the existing Civil Services setup to align it with the lofty goals of the freedom struggle.

Foundation of the Indian National Congress (1885):

• The establishment of the Congress is often attributed to Allan Octavian Hume (AO), a retired British member of the Indian Civil Services. With the approval of Viceroy Lord Dufferin, AO Hume successfully brought together prominent political leaders to form the Indian National Congress.
• Before the Congress’s formation, the Indian National Conference had conducted two sessions in 1883 and 1885 under the guidance of SN Bannerjee and Anand Mohan Bose.
• AO Hume had previously founded the Indian National Union in 1884, considered the precursor to the Indian National Congress.

Serving as the General Secretary of INC from 1885 to 1906, AO Hume published a pamphlet titled “An Old Men’s Hope” during the Madras Session in 1887.

Formation of the Indian National Congress (INC):

• The inaugural session of the Indian National Congress took place on 28th December 1885 at Sethado Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit Pathshala, Bombay, under the Presidentship of WC Bonnerjee.
• The first session attracted 72 delegates from across India, with the number rising to 436 in 1886. Moderate leaders held sway during the Congress’s early phase.
• The moderates believed in the essential justice and goodness of the British nation. 

Dadabhai Naoroji (thrice President), Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozeshah Mehta, P Anandacharlu, Surendranath Banerjee, Romesh Chandra Dutt, Ananda Mohan Bose, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale were some of the notable Congress Presidents in this early period.

• In 1889, a British Committee of the Indian National Congress was established in London under the Chairmanship of William Wedderburn (biographer of AO Hume), and a journal named “India” was also initiated.

Theories Related to the Formation of INC:

Several theories are under consideration regarding the formation of the Indian National Congress:

The Safety Valve Theory:

• A controversy exists over the actual motives behind AO Hume’s establishment of the Indian National Congress. The theory began with WC Bonnerjee’s statement in 1898, suggesting that Hume acted under the direct advice of Lord Dufferin.
• It was believed that Dufferin’s idea was to create a political organization through which the government could understand the genuine wishes of the people and prevent potential political outbursts in the country.
• This theory, known as the Safety Valve Theory, gained support from radical critics like Lala Lajpat Rai and RP Dutt. However, it lost credibility with the opening of Dufferin’s private papers, suggesting that Hume took advantage of an already existing atmosphere.

Official Conspiracy Theory:

• The idea of the Indian National Congress as an All India Political Organisation being initiated by AO Hume, an Englishman, raised many speculations.
• It is believed that during his service, Hume realized that the suffering of the masses and the alienation of intellectuals could accumulate discontent, posing a threat to the continuation of British rule.
• Contemporary historians rejected the official conspiracy theory, arguing that Indian leaders wanted to proceed cautiously to avoid British suppression and brutality. Given Hume’s background as a British ex-civil servant, the establishment of a political organization by him was less likely to arouse hostility in official circles.

Main Objectives of INC

The primary goals of the Indian National Congress were as follows:

• Establishing a Pan India Organization to initiate a democratic, nationalist movement.
• Promoting national unity and liberating India from British colonial rule. The Congress aimed to politicize and educate the public, raising awareness of the exploitation of Indians’ political rights by colonial powers.
• Emphasizing the need for increased Indian representation in the civil service.
• Creating and disseminating an anti-colonial nationalist philosophy.
• Fostering harmonious relationships among nationalist political activists from all regions of the nation.
• Formulating and presenting popular demands to the government to unify the people around a common economic and political program.
• Developing and consolidating a sense of national unity among people, transcending barriers of religion, caste, or province.

Evaluation of the Initial Success of the Indian National Congress

The Indian National Congress (INC) exhibited notable success in its early years through various factors:

• They represented the most progressive forces of the time.
• They were able to create a wide national awakening of all Indians having common interests and the need to rally around a common program against a common enemy and above all, the feeling of belonging to one nation.
• They trained people in political work and popularised modern ideas.
• They exposed the exploitative character of colonial rule, thus undermining its moral foundations.

Their political work was based on hard realities and not on shallow sentiments, religion, etc.

• They were able to establish the basic political truth that India should be ruled in the interest of Indians.
• They created a solid base for a more vigorous, militant, mass-based national movement in the years that followed.

The Prominent/Important Sessions of Congress

Year	Place	President	Related Facts
1885	Bombay	WC Bonnerjee	Held at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit Pathshala, Bombay. Earlier, the session was to be held at Poona, but the venue was shifted due to the outbreak of Cholera at Poona.
1886	Calcutta	Dadabhai Naoroji
1887	Madras	Badruddin Tyabji	First session to be presided over by a Muslim President.
1888	Allahabad (Prayagraj)	George Yule	First session to be presided over by an Englishman.
1889	Bombay	William Wedderburn	A committee on Indian National Congress was endorsed.
1890	Calcutta	Pherozeshah mehta	Kadambini Ganguly, the first Woman Graduate of Calcutta University, addressed the session.
1907	Surat	Rash Behari Ghosh	The session witnessed the split between the moderates and the extremists.
1917	Calcutta	Annie Besant	First Woman President. She gave the first flag to Congress, Green and Red.
1919	Amritsar	Motilal Nehru	Resignation of moderates like SN Bannerjee.
1924	Belgaum	Mahatma Gandhi’s	The only session where Gandhiji was the President.
1925	Kanpur	Sorajini naidu	First session to be presided by an Indian woman
1928	Calcutta	Motilal nehru	First All India Youth Congress came into existence, marking the return of Gandhi to active politics after 6 years.
1929	Lahore	Jawaharlal Nehru	Poorna Swaraj Resolution: Congress Working Committee authorized to launch Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM).
1931	Karachi	Vallabhbhai Patel	Resolution on Fundamental Rights and National Economic Policy. Pt Jawaharlal Nehru drafted the resolution on FR.

Struggle for Independence

• The Indian National Movement represented a dual struggle undertaken by the Indian public on two fronts. One front involved endeavors to forge a unified nation, while the other front was characterized by resistance against the British, aiming to establish a sovereign nation-state.

The Moderates (1885-1905)

• From 1885 to 1905, the Congress was predominantly led by leaders whose methods were labeled as moderate or liberal. These leaders employed tactics such as petitions, speeches, and articles, expressing allegiance to the British Raj. The approaches of the moderates are best characterized as constitutional agitation.

Demands of Moderates

• The political demands of the Congress during this period were moderate, while its economic demands were radical and anti-imperialist. These included the expansion and reform of legislative councils to achieve popular control of administration, the removal of restrictions on freedom of the press and speech, and the separation of the judiciary from the executive.
• By the early 20th century, moderate nationalists began advocating for self-government within the British Empire.
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Dadabhai Naoroji made significant contributions to this demand in 1905 and 1906, respectively, during the Calcutta Session of Congress.
• One key focus of the nationalists during this phase was addressing the Drain of Wealth from India to Britain. 
• In this context, they called for an end to India’s economic drain. Other economic demands included the abolition of discriminatory laws, opportunities for Indians in administrative roles, concurrent holding of the ICS examination in England and India, abolition of the salt tax, and the reimposition of import duties on cotton goods. Reduction in high military expenditure was also among their economic demands.

Methods Employed by the Moderates

• To achieve their goal, they made several reform demands and criticized government policies.
•  They valued patience and reconciliation over violence and confrontation.
• They relied on constitutional and peaceful means to achieve their goal.

They concentrate on educating people, raising their political consciousness and forming public opinion.

• The moderates organized lectures in various parts of England to create public opinion. Moderates used various types of newspapers and chronicles to criticize government policies, including the Bengali, the Bombay Chronicle, the Hindustan Times, Induprakash, Rast Goftar, and the Weekly Journal India.
• They also asked the government to conduct an investigation and find ways and means to solve the problems that people were experiencing.
• Meetings were held in England, Mumbai, Allahabad, Pune and Calcutta, among other places

Contributions of Moderate Nationalists

• Economic Critique of British Imperialism: Early nationalists like Dadabhai Naoroji, RC Dutt, and Dinshaw Wacha analyzed the political economy of British rule in India. They introduced the Drain Theory to explain British exploitation and demanded reductions in inland revenue, abolition of the salt tax, improved conditions for plantation laborers, and decreased military spending.
• Constitutional Reforms: The moderates addressed the weaknesses of the Imperial Legislative Council, a powerless body established by the Indian Councils Act of 1861. They sought increased Indian representation and advocated for constitutional reforms to make the legislative process more inclusive and responsive to the people.
• Nationalist demands for constitutional change between 1885 and 1892 centered on two primary issues: Council expansion, aimed at increasing Indian representation in councils, and Council reform, aimed at granting councils more authority.

General Administrative Reform Campaign:

• The campaign advocated for the Indianization of government service on economic grounds. British civil servants received disproportionately high pay, making the inclusion of Indians more cost-effective. Discrimination against Indians in positions of power was a key concern.
• Protection of Civil Rights: Nationalists emphasized the protection of civil rights, including freedom of expression, thought, association, and the press. The continuous campaign helped spread modern democratic ideas, making the defense of civil rights an integral part of the freedom struggle.

Achievements of Moderates:

• Moderates achieved a wide national awakening and successfully popularized democratic and nationalist ideals.
• They exposed the exploitative nature of British imperialism, with the Theory of Drain of Wealth playing a crucial role.
• Notable concrete achievements included the establishment of a Public Service Commission in 1886.
• The Indian Council Act of 1892, granting some powers to elected local bodies, was another significant accomplishment.
• Their efforts led to a House of Commons resolution in 1893 for simultaneous ICS examinations in London and India, along with the appointment of the Welby Commission on Indian Expenditure (1895).
• In 1893, William Wedderburn and WS Caine founded the Indian Parliamentary Committee to advocate for Indian political reforms in the House of Commons.

Limitations of the Moderates:

• From 1885 to 1905, the National Movement primarily involved the educated elites, excluding the masses from active participation.
• Moderates did not explicitly demand complete independence from foreign rule.
• They heavily drew inspiration from Western political thinking, further distancing themselves from the broader population.
• Despite the moderate phase’s failure to achieve immediate gains, it instilled a sense of nationalism among the masses and provided the foundation for future growth in the national movement.
• MN Roy referred to the moderate phase as the golden period of modern Indian history.

British Power’s Attitude Towards Congress:

• British officials were hostile toward the rising nationalist movement and grew suspicious of the National Congress.
• Lord Dufferin attempted to persuade Allan Octavian Hume to limit Congress activities to social work and refrain from political affairs.
• When Congress leaders rejected this limitation, British officials realized that Congress had become a tool in the hands of Indian leaders, openly criticizing both the organization and its leaders.
• Starting from 1887 in Madras Presidency, British officials turned vehemently against Congress, labeling nationalist leaders as disloyal babus, seditious Brahmins, and violent villains. Congress was accused of being a factory of sedition.
• Recognizing Congress as a unifying force, British officials adopted a policy of divide and rule, encouraging individuals like Sayyid Ahmed Khan and Raja Shiva Prasad to initiate an Anti-Congress Movement.
• Efforts were made to create communal divisions by favoring one community over another, attempting to undermine nationalism. However, these endeavors failed to impede the growth of the National Movement.

The Extremists (1905-1918):

• The early Congress’s moderate policies disillusioned a younger generation of leaders, often referred to as neo-nationalists or extremists.
• Extremists advocated the boycott of foreign goods, the use of Swadeshi goods, national education, passive resistance, and Swaraj, with some interpreting Swaraj as complete autonomy or independence.

The boycott of British-made goods and the promotion of Swadeshi products aimed to stimulate Indian industries.

• The concept of a National Scheme of Education aimed to encourage the avoidance of government-controlled universities and colleges.
• Extremists understood and highlighted Britain’s negative role in India, emphasizing democracy, constitutionalism, progress, and the need to broaden the social base of the national movement.
• They realized that achieving these goals required pressure tactics and some form of direct action.

The extremists’ policy yielded positive results, leading to the annulment of the Partition of Bengal in 1911, instilling new self-confidence and assurance among Indian nationalists.

Causes for the Rise of Extremists:

• Growing awareness among Indians of the exploitative nature of British colonial rule in India.
• Writings of early nationalist leaders exposing the true nature of British rule, such as Ranade’s essay on Indian Economy (1898), Dadabhai Naoroji’s Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901), and RC Dutt’s Economic History of India (1901).
• Repressive policies of the British Government contributing to discontent and the growth of extremism:
  • Deportation of the Chapekar brothers without trial in 1897.
  • Enactment of a law making it an offense to preach nationalism (1898).
  • University Act of 1904.
  • Enactment of the Indian Official Secrets Act to restrict press freedom (1904).
  • Controversial partition of Bengal in 1905.
• The immediate cause for the rise of extremism was the reactionary rule of Lord Curzon (1889-1905), who considered the Congress as an unclean and seditious organization. Policies such as the Calcutta Corporation Act (1899), the Official Secrets Act, and the Indian Universities Act created significant resentment. The most contentious aspect was the Partition of Bengal in 1905.
• Curzon’s partition of Bengal, ostensibly for administrative reasons, was, in reality, a move to suppress the growing nationalist sentiment.
• It is argued that the partition inadvertently supported, rather than hindered, forces working against the British position in India.

Methods of Extremists:

• During the extremist phase of the Indian National Movement, methods differed significantly from the moderate phase, marked by a lack of loyalty to the British.
• Extremist leaders recognized that British exploitation was the primary motive and openly agitated against them to compel acceptance of their demands.
• They actively involved the masses in the agitation against British rule.
• Extremist methods of action included:
• Boycott of Foreign Goods: This encompassed the refusal to use foreign-made salt, foreign clothes, and any form of foreign exchange. Washerwomen even declined to wash foreign clothes.
• Encouraging the use of goods produced in India, known as Swadeshi goods, was a strategy employed to foster the growth of Indian industries and generate employment opportunities. This initiative resulted in the establishment of Swadeshi textile mills, soap factories, banks, insurance companies, and more.
• National Education The establishment of national schools and colleges across the country aimed to provide education in vernacular languages. These institutions focused on imparting knowledge about India’s glorious heritage, instilling nationalistic values in the students.
• Public Meetings Mass mobilization was achieved through public meetings and processions, becoming a popular form of expression among the people.
• Passive Resistance Extremists advocated for passive resistance, urging individuals to refrain from activities that favored the government. Non-payment of taxes and revenues was a notable form of passive resistance.
• Utilization of Traditional Festivals and Melas Bal Gangadhar Tilak introduced Ganapati Pooja and Shivaji festivals as mediums of propaganda to connect with the masses and convey nationalist sentiments.

Prominent Extremist Leaders

Description About some of the prominent extremist leaders are as follows

Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920)

• Referred to as Lokmanya by Indians and considered the Father of Indian Unrest by the British, Tilak evolved from a moderate to an extremist in the early 20th century. Using religious orthodoxy, he organized the Ganapati festival (1893) and Shivaji festival (1896) to establish mass contact. Tilak was the first to advocate the slogans of Swarajya, Swadeshi, and Boycott.
• Tilak, renowned for his assertion “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it,” was hailed by Mahatma Gandhi as The Maker of Modern India. A notable member of the Deccan Education Society, Tilak played a key role in establishing the New English School, later evolving into the Ferguson College. As an editor, he contributed to two newspapers—Maratha in English and Kesari in Marathi.
• During the Swadeshi Movement, Tilak emphasized the necessity of Swaraj for the practice of Swadharma, linking it to social reform, industrial progress, meaningful education, and the fulfillment of national life. In 1916, he organized his Home Rule League in Poona, boldly declaring ‘Swaraj is my birthright and I will have it.’ Tilak significantly contributed to the Anti-Partition Movement of 1905-08, transforming it into a pan-India movement.

Bhikaji Cama

• Bhikaji Rustom Cama, also known as Madam Cama, was a prominent figure in the Indian freedom struggle. Advocating for the cause of Swaraj, she became the first person to hoist the Indian Flag in Germany in 1907. Serving as the Personal Secretary to Dadabhai Naoroji, Madam Cama earned the title of the Mother of Indian Revolution.

Lala Lajpat Rai (1865- 1928)

• Lala Lajpat Rai, popularly known as the Punjab Kesari, led the College party faction of the Arya Samaj. Becoming an extremist leader in the early 20th century, he played a significant role in the Anti-Partition Movement. As the editor of the Punjabi and the author of “Unhappy India,” Lajpat Rai made valuable contributions to the Indian independence movement.
• He asserted that an organization unable to differentiate between begging for rights and claiming them could not achieve political rights. Lala Lajpat Rai promoted the Swadeshi movement in Punjab. While leading an anti-Simon procession, he sustained injuries that later proved fatal.

Bipin Chandra Pal (1858-1932)

• Revered as the Father of Revolutionary Thought in India, BC Pal initially pursued a career in journalism, founding Paridarsak (a weekly). He later served as the Assistant Editor of Bengal Public Opinion and the Tribune. In 1901, he initiated New India to propagate his brand of nationalism, emphasizing Swaraj, Swadeshi, Boycott, and National education.
• Beginning as a moderate, Pal shifted towards extremism, expressing his disdain for the Congress in 1902 by stating, “The Congress here and its British Committee in London are both begging institutions.”

Aurobindo Ghosh (1872-1950)

• Aurobindo Ghosh, while working as a lecturer in Baroda, published “New Lamps for Old” in 1893, criticizing the moderate politics of the Congress. Disapproving of Congress leaders’ pleas to the government, he advocated the Doctrine of Passive Resistance in a series of 1907 articles in Bande Mataram.
• Aurobindo played a pivotal role in the Anti-Partition Movement, advocating for the organized and relentless boycott of British goods, the British education system, the judiciary, and the executive.
• Upon release from jail in 1910, he moved to Pondicherry, focusing on philosophical, spiritual, and literary pursuits. His notable works include “Savitri” (the longest epic poem in English) and “The Life Divine.”
• Aurobindo elevated patriotism to the status of mother worship, stating, “I know my country as my mother. I adore her. I worship her.” In “Bhavani Mandir,” he expressed that our mother country is not merely a piece of Earth, a figure of speech, or a fiction of the mind.

Government Response to Extremists

• The British government did not adopt a lenient stance toward extremists and employed full force to suppress their activities. Several laws were enacted between 1907 and 1911 to curtail the influence of extremists. These laws included the Seditious Meetings Act of 1907, the Indian Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act of 1908, the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1908, and the Indian Press Act of 1910.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak faced legal consequences and was sent to prison in Mandalay (Burma, now Myanmar) due to his support for revolutionaries involved in the killing of two British women, even though their initial target was a British Magistrate.

Significance of the Extremists

• The leadership of the extremists brought about a fundamental shift in the nature of Indian nationalism. They forcefully advocated for Swaraj and employed more radical methods than the moderates.
• Extremist leaders sought to reorient Indian religious traditions towards worldly life and connect them with the national liberation struggle. Aurobindo Ghosh, for instance, reinterpreted Vedanta philosophy, emphasizing the Unity of Man and God, and based his concept of nationalism on it.
• The extremists emphasized mobilizing people against foreign rule through political movements. They were willing to endure imprisonment, deportation, and physical suffering to galvanize the masses in the struggle against foreign rule.
• Demonstrations and processions led by extremists engaged common people in agitations against British rule. They strategically utilized popular symbols like Shivaji and religious symbols like God Ganapati and Goddess Kali to mobilize the masses.

Limitations of the Extremist Phase

• The extremist phase of the Indian Independence Movement faced certain limitations, including:
• Although extremism advocated Swaraj as a new objective for the National Movement, the definition of Swaraj among extremist leaders was ambiguous. For instance, Aurobindo Ghosh viewed Swaraj as complete independence from foreign rule, while for Tilak, it represented a form of self-government within the British framework.
• While extremist leaders criticized moderates for not initiating a mass movement, they struggled to create one. The Congress-led by moderates had a social base that failed to extend its influence to rural areas, preventing the assimilation of rural people into the extremist ideology.
• Despite the energetic and emotional appeal of extremist leaders that ignited a new zeal among the people, they were unable to translate these sentiments into tangible outcomes.
• Since these extremist leaders drew inspiration from the cultural legacy of Hinduism, the isolation of Muslims and the rise of communalism gained momentum, instigated by the British Empire.

Similar to the moderates, the ideology of extremists lacked a fundamental foundation. They failed to present a comprehensive analysis comparable to theories like the drain of wealth theory.

Difference between Moderates and Extremists

Moderates	Extremists
Social Base: Anglicised upper class of urban areas.	Social Base: Educated middle class and lower middle classes in towns.
Claimed social equality and share in British Government of India on grounds that they were British subjects.	Demanded social and political equality as their birthright.
Believed that political connections with Britain were in India’s social, political, and cultural interests.	Believed that political connections with Britain would perpetuate British exploitation of India.
Demanded constitutional reforms, limited self-government within the Imperial framework, and share for Indians in the services.	Demanded Swaraj (Self Rule).
-Professed loyalty to the British crown.	British crown was unworthy of claiming Indian loyalty.

Partition of Bengal (1905)

• One of Lord Curzon’s administrative measures that faced strong opposition was the Partition of Bengal in 1905.
• The assault on Bengal began in 1899 when Curzon reduced the number of elected members in the Calcutta corporation, primarily to appease European business interests in the city, which frequently complained about delays in the issuance of licenses and similar facilities.

British Rationale Behind Partition

•  The notion of partition was initially proposed by William Ward in 1896, the Chief Commissioner of Assam.
• To counter the growing nationalist challenge in Eastern India, Curzon and his advisors, A. Fraser (the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal), and H.H. Risley (Secretary, Home Department, Government of India), sought effective solutions, ultimately finding it in the division of the Bengali-speaking population.
• Risley’s official statement asserted, “Bengal united is a power, and Bengal divided will pull in several different ways.”
• Similarly, Curzon stated, “The Indian’s only business was to be governed, and it was sacrilege on its part to have any other aspiration.” Another objective behind the partition was to sow division between Hindus and Muslims.

Way to Partition

• The Curzon scheme for partitioning Bengal became publicly known when the Viceroy wrote his minutes on Territorial Redistribution on June 1, 1903.
• The province officially came into existence on October 16, 1905, by dividing Bengal and its 41.5 million Bengali-speaking people. Following the Partition of Bengal, the two new provinces that emerged were East Bengal and Bengal.

The truncated new province of Bengal, with its capital at Calcutta, was to comprise 11 districts of West Bengal, the districts of Darjeeling, as well as the whole of Bihar and Orissa, with the majority of the population being Hindu.

Major Events that Shaped Nationalist Growth (1892-1904

Years	Significance
1892	Indian Council Act was passed, but it failed to satisfy extremist leaders as it did not fulfill all their demands.
1897	The Natu brothers were deported without trial, and Tilak and others were charged with sedition.
1898	Repressive laws in IPC Section 124 A were made more stringent with the addition of new provisions under Section 156 A.
1899	In Calcutta, the number of Indian members in the corporation was reduced.
1904	Official Secrets Act was enacted to curb the freedom of the press.
1904	Indian Universities Act was implemented to exert more control over universities, enabling the exercise of power over activities and discussions related to the National Movement.

Annulment of Bengal Partition

• The official announcement declaring the annulment of the Partition of Bengal and the relocation of the British capital from Calcutta to Delhi took place at the Delhi Durbar.
• Following the annulment, West and East Bengal were amalgamated, resulting in the creation of three distinct states:
• Bengal (encompassing East and West Bengal)
• Assam (maintaining the same status it had in 1874)
• Bihar and Orissa (ultimately separated in 1935).

Swadeshi Movement (1905)

•  Initially aimed at reversing the Partition of Bengal, the Swadeshi Movement quickly evolved to encompass the broader goal of achieving Swaraj.
• Aurobindo Ghosh introduced the theory of an organized and unyielding boycott of British goods, the British education system, the judiciary, and the executive, coupled with the social boycott of loyalists and civil disobedience against unjust laws.
• The boycott of British products transitioned into the promotion of Swadeshi, along with the organization of Swadeshi melas. The charka symbolized the popular aspiration for the country’s economic self-sufficiency.
• The Swadeshi Movement played a role in revitalizing indigenous artisan crafts and industries.
• An essential aspect of the Swadeshi Movement was the emphasis on self-reliance, known as Atmasakti and advocated by Rabindranath Tagore. Several exclusive Indian industrial ventures, such as Calcutta Potteries, Bengal Chemical Swadeshi Stores (established by Acharya PC Ray), Lakshmi Cotton Mills, Mohini Mills, and National Tannery, were initiated.
• The government attempted to suppress students by threatening to withdraw grants, scholarships, and affiliations of the institutions they belonged to, through the infamous circular of October 22, 1905, issued by Carlyle, the Chief Secretary of the Government of Bengal (also known as the Carlyle Circular).
• The Congress initially supported the Boycott Movement solely for Bengal during its Banaras Session in 1905. Extremists aimed to expand the movement nationwide, but moderates opposed this.
• During the 1906 Congress Session in Calcutta, Dadabhai Naoroji declared Congress’s goal to be Swaraj, similar to that of the UK and other colonies. The compromise resolutions passed at this session included Swadeshi, Boycott, National Education, and Self-Government. Consequently, the National Council of Education was established, marking the first time the demand for Swaraj was raised from the Congress platform.
• The Indian Society of Oriental Art was founded in 1907, with Nandlal Bose becoming the first recipient of a scholarship offered by the society. Numerous national volunteer bodies or Samitis emerged during this period, including the Dawn Society (named after the journal Dawn) by Sachindra Mukherjee, The Anti-Circular Society, The Swadesh Bhandhav, The Anushilan by Promotha Mitter, and The Dacca Anushilan Samiti by Pulin.
• The Samitis advocated the importance of Swadeshi and Boycott, engaged in social work during famines and epidemics, provided physical and moral training, organized crafts and national schools, and established arbitration committees and village societies. 
• Notable Muslims, such as Abdul Rasul (the renowned barrister), Liaquat Hussain (the popular agitator), and Guznavi (the businessman), actively participated in the Swadeshi Movement. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad even joined one of the revolutionary terrorist groups.
• Following the split of Congress at Surat, the Swadeshi Movement lost its major strength and force. It was eventually suppressed by the British through repressive measures, including the imprisonment and deportation of many of its leaders in 1908.
• However, the Swadeshi Movement marked the beginning of organized movements in India. Its significance is evident in the fact that Mahatma Gandhi acknowledged the real awakening in India occurring after the Partition of Bengal.

Delhi Darbar

• Delhi Darbar, an Indian imperial-style mass assembly organized by the British, took place three times: in 1877, 1903, and 1911. 
• The 1877 Darbar, known as the Proclamation Darbar, was organized by Thomas Henry Thornton and aimed to proclaim Queen Victoria as Empress of India. It was attended by the first Earl of Lytton (Viceroy of India), many princely states, and intellectuals, symbolizing the transfer of control of British India from the East India Company to the crown.
• The 1903 Delhi Darbar celebrated the succession of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra as Emperor and Empress of India. The December 1911 Darbar commemorated the coronation of George V and Mary of Teck, announcing the annulment of the Partition of Bengal and the transfer of India’s capital from Calcutta to Delhi.

Hardinge Bomb Case

• On the designated date of December 23, 1912, the Viceroy’s state entry into the new capital, Delhi, was scheduled. 
• During the procession through Chandni Chowk in Delhi, a bomb was thrown at the elephant carrying the Viceroy, resulting in severe injuries to Hardinge. Rash Behari Bose was identified as the perpetrator, and Bhai Bal Mukund received a death sentence in the Hardinge Bomb case.

All India Muslim League (1906)

• The partition of Bengal became a major catalyst for the division between Hindu and Muslim communities in India. In response, the Muslim delegation, led by Aga Khan, met with the Viceroy Lord Minto in 1906, demanding a special status for Muslims.
• The Muslim League was subsequently established in Dhaka under the leadership of Salimulla Khan and Aga Khan, with Waqar-ul-Mulk Mustaq Hussain becoming its first President.
• Between 1905 and 1907, the ideological differences between extremists and liberals escalated. Additionally, leaders of the Extremist party doubted the moderates’ ability to negotiate with the British Government.

Demand for Separate Electorate

• During the Amritsar Session of the Muslim League in 1908, presided over by Sir Syed Ali Imam, a demand for a separate electorate for Muslims was raised. This demand was eventually granted through the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909. 

Although Muhammad Jinnah had initially opposed the league, he later moved a resolution condemning the system of communal electorates at the Allahabad Session of the Congress in 1910.

Surat Split (1907)

• During the Swadeshi Movement, the divide between the moderates and extremists widened due to issues related to the spread of the Boycott Movement beyond Bengal, differences in the chosen method of struggle, conflicting ideologies, and clashes of personalities.
• Extremists aimed to expand the scope of Boycott and Swadeshi beyond Bengal and include government services, law courts, the Legislative Council, and all other associations with the British in their program. However, the moderates opposed this approach.
• The Surat Session of the Congress in 1907 highlighted the growing differences, as Rash Behari Ghosh was chosen as the President against the preferences of the extremists, who favored Lala Lajpat Rai. Eventually, the moderates, who held the majority, gained complete control over the Congress organization, leading to the suspension of extremists from the Indian National Congress.

Home Rule Movement (1916)

• The Home Rule Movement, triggered by India’s response to World War I, marked the emergence of an assertive political trend, pioneered by Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak. While the idea of establishing a Home Rule League in India originated with Annie Besant, the concrete campaign for Home Rule began with the publication of the weekly newspaper, the Commonweal, on January 2, 1914.
• In April 1916, Tilak initiated the Indian Home Rule League, and five months later, in September 1916, Mrs. Annie Besant launched the Home Rule League. 
• Tilak’s League operated in Maharashtra (excluding Bombay City), Karnataka, the Central Province, and Berar, while Annie Besant’s League had charge of the rest of India. The Home Rule Movement borrowed the term “Home Rule” from a similar movement in Ireland.

The primary goal of the Home Rule League was to achieve self-governance for India within the British Empire, modeled after autonomous colonies like Australia and New Zealand.

Tilak’s Home Rule League:

• Launched during the Bombay Provincial Conference in April 1916, Tilak’s Home Rule League had six branches and focused on promoting the idea of Home Rule through Maharatta and Kesari publications. Pamphlets in Kannada, Gujarati, Marathi, and English were published, advocating for Swaraj, the formation of linguistic states, and education in vernacular languages. This movement earned Bal Gangadhar Tilak the title of Lokmanya.

Annie Besant’s Home Rule League:

• Annie Besant, who arrived in India in 1893, inaugurated her Home Rule League in September 1916 in Madras, with George Arundale as the Organising Secretary.
• The league’s activities were mainly led by Besant and her associates, including Arundale, CP Ramaswamy Aiyer, and BP Wadia. Publications like New India and Commonweal were brought out, emphasizing religious liberty, national education, social reform, and political autonomy within the British Commonwealth. 
• Weekly Commonweal aimed to popularize the idea of self-government for India. Jawaharlal Nehru in Allahabad and B Chakravarti and J Bannerjee in Calcutta joined the league.
• Despite government repression, the agitators remained resolute. After Montague’s Declaration (August 1917), also known as the August Declaration, Annie Besant discontinued her league, while Tilak continued his movement.

British Government’s Response to Home Rule Leagues:

• The British Government responded firmly to the Home Rule Leagues, employing a heavy-handed approach. In June 1917, prominent figures like Annie Besant, BP Wadia, and George Arundale were arrested. 

Sir Subramaniyavel Aiyar protested the arrests by renouncing his Knighthood, and Tilak initiated passive resistance against the government’s actions.

Decline of Home Rule Leagues:

Several factors contributed to the decline of the Home Rule League:

• Lack of effective organization within the leagues, leading to loose formations.
• Communal riots during 1917-18 weakened the movement.
• Reforms pacified moderates, and extremists kept moderates away from activities from September 1918 onward.
• The Montague-Chelmsford reforms, known in July 1918, further divided leaders. Key leaders like Tilak and Annie Besant took different paths—Tilak went abroad, and Annie Besant, in response to proposed reforms, resorted to passive movements.

Achievements of the Home Rule League Movement:

Despite its decline, the Home Rule League movement achieved significant milestones:

• Shifting the base from educated elites to the masses, and establishing a connection between villages and towns.
• Creating a new cadre of nationalists, setting the stage for the subsequent phase of the Gandhi-led movement.
• The August Declaration of 1917 by Montague was a direct outcome of these movements.
• Home Rule League leaders played a crucial role in bridging the gap between moderates and extremists through the Lucknow Pact of 1916.

Lucknow Pact (1916):

The Lucknow Session of 1916 marked two vital developments:

• The re-admission of extremists into the political landscape.
• The formation of an alliance between Congress and the Muslim League.
• The League’s Annual Session of 1915 in Bombay, attended by Congress leaders including Gandhi, Malaviya, and Sarojini Naidu, saw the appointment of a committee to formulate political reforms in collaboration with other communities. Concurrent annual sessions of the League and Congress took place in Lucknow in December 1916. Both entities independently passed resolutions advocating a joint scheme of constitutional reforms and reached an agreement to cooperate in the political arena based on a common program, with Tilak and Annie Besant playing dominant roles in the Lucknow Session.
• This cooperative arrangement, widely known as the Lucknow Pact or Congress League Scheme, was primarily facilitated by Tilak’s efforts.

The Lucknow Pact urged the British Government to grant self-government to India at the earliest opportunity, expand the Provincial Legislative Council and the Governor-General’s Legislative Council, and enhance the representation of elected members on the expanded council.

• Additionally, it called for the Government of India to assume powers related to appointments to the Indian Civil Services and the opening of commissioned and non-commissioned ranks in the military and naval services to Indians. 
• The pact formalized the acceptance of separate electorates for Muslims. The reforms proposed in the Lucknow Pact were eventually realized through the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919.
• However, the All-India Hindu Mahasabha vehemently opposed the Lucknow Pact at its Lucknow conference, where VP Madhav Rao, in his presidential address, criticized the principle of separate electorates. The Congress-League alliance, established by the Lucknow Pact, endured until the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement in February 1922, following the Chauri-Chaura incident.
• One fundamental flaw of the Lucknow Pact was its reliance on the mistaken notion that Hindus and Muslims constituted separate communities, rendering the pact only a temporary truce.

Montague Declaration (1917)

• The conclusion of World War I (1914-18), the escalating revolutionary activities, and the resonance of the Home Rule Movement compelled the British to reconsider their policies and adopt a conciliatory approach towards the demands of Indian nationalists.
• On August 20, 1917, Montague, the Secretary of State for India, delivered a momentous declaration in the House of Commons outlining the objectives of British policies in India. Subsequently, Montague visited India in November 1917 to gauge the opinions of various political factions in the country.
• Based on these consultations, a comprehensive report on Indian Constitutional reforms was prepared and published in July 1918. This report laid the foundation for the Montague-Chelmsford reforms, also known as the Government of India Act,of  1919.

Second Split in Indian National Congress (1918)

• Reactions within the Congress were sharply divided. Moderates welcomed it as India’s Magna Carta, while others criticized it for falling short of legitimate expectations. The disparity of opinions within the Congress on the Montague Declaration eventually led to the second split in the party, with the moderates opting out.
• In a special session in August 1918, the Indian National Congress criticized the August declaration as disappointing and unsatisfactory, suggesting significant modifications. Moderates, led by Surendranath Bannerjee, supported the declaration in a separate conference held in November 1918.

This schism marked the second split in the Congress, with ultra-moderates forming a new party called the National Liberal League in 1918, later known as the All-India Liberal Federation.

Revolutionary Activities (1907-17)

The onset of revolutionary ideology and activities in India was influenced by various internal and external factors.

Revolutionary Programme

• During this stage, the revolutionaries did not adopt a strategy of violent mass revolution across the entire country.
• Instead, they chose to emulate the tactics of Russian or Irish nationalists.
• This approach involved individual heroic actions, such as assassinations of unpopular officials, traitors, and informers among the revolutionaries themselves.
• Conducting Swadeshi dacoities to raise funds for revolutionary activities (during the First World War) and organizing military conspiracies with the expectation of help from Britain’s enemies.

Objectives of the Movement

• The primary idea was to instill terror in the hearts of the rulers, arouse the people, and eliminate the fear of authority from their minds.
• The revolutionaries aimed to inspire the people, particularly the idealistic youth, by appealing to their patriotism.

Emergence of the Revolutionary Movement

• Disappointed with the outcomes of the work of moderates within the Congress, extremists emerged, giving birth to the movement.
• Inspired by Western ideology, they published literature to promote their ideas. The major centers of the early phase of the revolutionary movement were in Bengal, Maharashtra, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and almost all parts of East India.

Revolutionary Activities in India

The description of revolutionary activities in different parts of India is provided below:

Bengal

• By the 1870s, Calcutta’s student community had affiliations with secret societies, although their activity levels were not as high.
• The inception of revolutionary groups occurred in 1902 in Midnapore, Bengal, under Jnanendranath Basu, as well as in Calcutta. The Anushilan Samiti was established by Pramatha Nath Mitra, including Jatindranath Bannerjee, Barindra Kumar Ghosh, and others. Until 1907, the activities of these societies were primarily focused on providing physical and moral training to their members and were not notably significant.
• In April 1906, an inner circle within Anushilan, featuring Barindra Kumar Ghosh and Bhupendranath Dutta, initiated the weekly magazine Yugantar. In the same year, Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal formed a secret society encompassing Punjab, Delhi, and the United Province. Hemachandra Kanungo went abroad for military and political training. 
• The Yugantar group attempted to assassinate the highly unpopular British official, Sir Fuller, the first Lieutenant Governor of the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam, by targeting the train on which Lieutenant-Governor Sir Andrew Fraser was traveling.
• Dacca Anushilan, under Pulin Das, conducted dacoities to raise funds for revolutionary activities.

Alipore Bomb Conspiracy Case (1908)

• The ‘Alipore Bomb Case’ was connected to the assassination attempt against Douglas Kingsford, an unpopular British Chief Magistrate. The bomb, thrown at Muzaffarpur in Northern Bihar, targeted Kingsford but hit a carriage containing two British women who tragically lost their lives.
• Two young revolutionaries, Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose, were responsible for the bomb attack. The British Government arrested Sri Aurobindo, Barindra Ghose, and many young revolutionaries, charging them with ‘Conspiracy’ or ‘waging war against the King.’ Members of the Anushilan Samiti in Calcutta, they faced legal consequences. 
• Chaki took his own life, while Bose, at the age of 18, was apprehended and sentenced to death by hanging. Aurobindo Ghosh was released due to lack of evidence, and others received life sentences in prison.

Maharashtra

• Revolutionary activities in Maharashtra included the formation of the Ramosi Peasant Force by Vasudev Balwant Phadke in 1879.
• The objective was to oust the British through an armed revolt and disrupt communication lines. The group sought to finance its activities through dacoities but was suppressed at its inception.
• In the 1890s, Tilak initiated a spirit of militant nationalism through Ganapati and Shivaji festivals and his journals Kesari and Maharaita. Two of his disciples, the Chapekar brothers Damodar and Balkrishna, assassinated the Plague Commissioner of Poona, Rand, and Lt. Ayerst in 1897.

Savarkar and his brother organized Mitra Mela, a secret society, in 1899, which later merged with Abhinav Bharat (modeled after Mazzini’s Young Italy) in 1904. This development turned Nasik, Poona, and Bombay into centers for bomb-making.

• In 1909, Anant Lakshman, a member of Abhinav Bharat, killed Jackson, the District Magistrate of Nasik.

Punjab

• Extremism in Punjab arose due to frequent famines, increased land revenue and irrigation taxes, the practice of ‘begar’ by zamindars, and events in Bengal.
• Leaders such as Lala Lajpat Rai published Punjabee (with the motto of all help at any cost), and Ajit Singh (Bhagat Singh’s uncle) organized the extremist Anjuman-Mohisban-Watan in Lahore, along with its journal Bharat Mata.
• Ajit Singh’s group turned to extremism and actively promoted non-payment of revenue and water rates among Chenab colonists and Bari Doab peasants.
• Other leaders included Aga Haider, Syed Haider Raza, and Bhai Parmanand. The radical Urdu poet Lalchand Falak joined the movement. In May 1907, the British government banned political gatherings, leading to the deportation of Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh, and the movement dwindled in Punjab.

Revolutionary Activities Abroad

• The revolutionaries sought refuge abroad to evade the Press Acts, publish revolutionary literature, and explore possibilities for obtaining arms.

Shyamji Krishnavarma established India House in 1905 in London, serving as a residence for radical youth students. V.D. Savarkar and Lala Hardayal became members of India House.

• In 1909, Madanlal Dhingra assassinated India Office bureaucrat Curzon Wylie.
• Madam Bhikaji Cama initiated the Indian Home Rule Movement in 1916 in Belgavi and established a center in France, publishing the Vande Bharat newspaper operated by Ajit Singh.
• Virendranath Chattopadhyay conducted his activities from Berlin in 1909. Along with Bhupendranath Dutta, Lala Hardayal, and others, the Berlin Committee for Indian Independence was established in 1915.
• With assistance from German officials and known as the Zimmerman Plan, its aim was to mobilize Indians in foreign countries, procure arms, and send volunteers to India for rebellion against the British.

The Ghadar

• The Ghadar was a revolutionary group centered around a weekly newspaper, The Ghadar, with headquarters in San Francisco and branches along the coast of the USA and in the Far East. It was established in 1913.
• The Ghadar Programme aimed to organize assassinations of officials, publish revolutionary and anti-imperialist literature, work among Indian troops abroad, procure arms, and foment revolt in all British colonies.
• The revolutionaries mainly included ex-soldiers and peasants who had migrated from Punjab to the USA and Canada in search of better employment opportunities.
• Pre-Ghadar revolutionary activities were carried out by Ramdas Puri, G.D. Kumar, Taraknath Das, Sohan Singh Bhakna, and Lala Hardayal from 1911.

Swadesh Sevak Home was established in Vancouver (Canada), and ‘United India House’ was set up in Seattle (USA).

• GD Kumar established Swades Sevak Home and initiated the publication of Swadesh Sewak Paper in Gurumukhi.
• Tarak Nath Das and GD Kumar jointly established United India House.
• Prominent leaders of the Ghadar Movement included Lala Hardayal, Ramchandra, Bhagwan Singh, Kartar Singh Sarabha, Barkatullah, and Bhai Parmanand.
• The Defence of India Act, of 1915, served as the primary and most severe tool employed by the British to counter the Ghadar Movement.

Komagata Maru Incident

• In 1914, the Komagata Maru, a ship chartered from Singapore carrying Sikh and Punjabi Muslims, was denied entry into Canada and forced to return to India.
• The British government attempted to detain the immigrants in Calcutta for transportation to Punjab.
• The immigrants resisted, leading to a confrontation in which 22 lost their lives.
• The Ghadar leaders were incensed by this incident and planned a violent attack to expel the British.
• Prominent leaders involved in the attack included Kartar Singh Saraba, Raghubar Dayal Gupta, Rashbehari Bose, and Sachin Sanyal.
• The date for the attack was set for 21st February 1915. However, the British learned of the plan, made pre-emptive arrests, and suppressed the movement.

Decline of Revolutionary Activities

Various factors contributed to a temporary decline in revolutionary activities, including:

•  The release of prisoners held under the Defence of India Rules after World War I.
•  Montagu’s statement in August 1917, which offered some conciliations to Indians.
•  The entry of Gandhiji into the freedom struggle and his adoption of new methods of nonviolent resistance.

World War I and the Response of Nationalists

During the First World War (1914-1919), Britain formed alliances with France, Russia, the USA, Italy, and Japan against Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey.

Nationalist leaders reacted to British participation in the war in three distinct ways:

• Moderates were in favor of extending support to the British as a matter of duty.
• Extremists, including Tilak, endorsed the war under the misconception that the British Government would grant self-government to Indians in return.
• Revolutionary groups saw the opportunity to wage war against the British and liberate the country.
• Indians, in supporting the British in their war efforts, failed to realize that the British werefighting only to safeguard their colonies and investments and markets.

Revolutionary Activities done in War Times

• Ghadar Party carried activities mainly in North America.
• Berlin Committee in Europe sent missions to Baghdad, Persia, Turkey, Kabul to work among Indian prisoners of war and to incite anti-British sentiments.
• Raja Mahendra Pratap Singh, Mohammed Barkatullah and Obaidullah Sindhi went to Kabul to establish a ‘Provisional Indian. Government’ with the help of Prince Amanullah in 1915.
• Indian soldiers in Singapore revolted against the British Government on 15th February, 1915. It’s leaders were Jamadar Chisti Khan, Jamadar Abdul Gani and Subedar Daud Khan.

Prelims Facts

• In which year did the Indian National Congress was set up? -1885 [UKPSC (Mains) 2006, UPPSC (Mains) 2010
• The Indian National Congress was established during the Viceroyalty of………. -Lord Dufferin [UPPSC (Mains) 2006, 2011, 2012)
• The Second Session of the Indian National Congress was presided over by leader -Dadabhai Naoroji (BPSC (Pre) 2001, 2002
• Who was the first Muslim President of the Indian National Congress? – Badruddin Tyabji (UPPSC (Pre) 2000, HPSC (Pre) 2013]
• Who said ‘The Congress movement was neither inspired by the people, nor was it thought or planned by them? Lord Dufferin (BPSC (Pre) 2005
• Who was the second Muslim President in the Indian National Congress? – Rahimtullah Mahomed Sayani [BPSC (Pre) 2012)
• Who called the Congress conferences as the ‘Annual National Festival of Educated Indians’? Lala Lajpat Rai (MPPSC (Pre) 2022)
• Rajni Palme Dutt said, ‘he fought imperialism and co-operated also, which political alliance did he talk about? Indian National Congress [BPSC (Pre) 2018
• Who said ‘The Congress movement was neither inspired by the people, nor was it thought or planned by them? Lala Lajpat Rai [BPSC (Pre) 2005] 
• The last session of Indian National Congress attended by Bal Gangadhar Tilak was – Amritsar Session, 1919 [ UPPSC (Pre) 2014]
• Who was the first Indian to contest election to the British  House of Commons? Dadabhai Naoroji (UKPSC (Pre) 2008]
• In 1893 AD, William Wedderburn and WS Caine, for what purpose did establish the Indian Parliamentary Committee? For agitating in House of Commons for political reform in India [IAS (Pre) 2011)
• The King for the King, who had given this statement during the National movement? – Dadabhai Naoroji (UPPSC (Pre) 2015]

UPSC NCERT Practice Questions

1. Arrange the following organizations on the basis of their correct order. JPSC (Pre) 2003

1. Bembay Association

2. Madras Mahajan Sabha

3. Indian Association

4. Indian League

Codes

a） 1,2,3,4

(b) 2, 3, 1, 4

(c) 3, 4, 2, 1

(d) 1, 4, 3, 2

2. Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was founded in BPSC (Pre) 2020

(a) 1858 by Mahadev Govind Ranade

(b) 1870 by Mahadev Govind Ranade

(c) 1870 by Pandita Ramabai Ranade

(d) 1870 by Surendranath Banerjee

(e) None of the above/More than one of the above

3. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below.

List I	List II
A. Indian League	1. Sisir Kumar Ghosh
B. Indian Association	2. Ananda Mohan Bose
C. Indian National Liberal Federation	3. Syed Ahmed Khan
D. United Indian Patriotic Association	4. Surendranath Banerjee

Codes 

a) 1 3 4 2

b) 2 1 4 3 

c) 3 2 4 1 

d) 1 2 4 3 

4. Which of the following statements) is/are correct about the formation of the Indian National Congress (INC)? UPPSC (Pre) 2004

1. INC was founded in AD 1885 in Bombay.

2. WC Bonnerjee was the first President of INC.

Codes

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

5. In AD 1893, William Wedderburn and WS Caine for what purpose did establish the Indian Parliamentary Committee? IAS (Pre) 2011

(a) For agitating in the House of Commons for political reforms in India.

(b) To campaign for the entry of Indians into the imperial judiciary.

(c) To facilitate discussion in the British Parliament on

Indian independence.

(d) To agitate for the entry of eminent Indians in the British Parliament.

6. Which one of the following statements is not correct about Dadabhai Naoroji? UPPSC (Pre) 2014, BPSC (Pre) 2017

(a) He was the first Indian who was appointed professor of Mathematics and Physics at Elphinstone College, Bombay.

(b) In AD 1892, he was elected a member of the British Parliament.

(c) He did started a Gujarati magazine, ‘Raft Goftar’

(d) He presided over the Indian National Congress four times.

7. With reference to the period of Extremist Nationalist Movement in India with its spirit of Swadeshi, which one of the following statements is not correct? IAS (Pre) 2002

(a) Liyakat Hussain led the Muslim peasants of Barisal in their agitations.

(b) In 1889, the Scheme of National Education was  formulated by Satish Chandra Mukherjee.

(c) The Bengal National College was founded in 1906, with Aurobindo as the Principal.

(d) Tagore preached the Cult of Atmasakti, the main social economic  which plank

regeneration of the villages.

8. Which of the following programmes were organised by the nationalist against the Partition of Bengal? – CGPSC (Pre) 2015

1. Boycott

2. Indigenous

3. Arayagha

4. National Education

Codes

(a) 1, 2 and 3

(b) 2, 3 and 4

(c) 1, 3 and 4

(d) 1, 2 and 4

9. Concerning the Swadeshi Movement, consider the following statements. IAS (Pre) 2019

1. It contributed to the revival of the indigenous artisan crafts and industries.

2. The National Council of Education was established as a part of Swadeshi Movement.

Which of the statementS) given above is/are correct?

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

10. What was the main reason for the split of the Indian National Congress at Surat in 1907? IAS (Pre) 2016

(a) Introduction of communalism into Indian politics by Lord Minto.

(b) Extremists’ lack of faith in the capacity of the moderates to negotiate with the British Government.

(c) Foundation of Muslim League.

(d) Aurobindo Ghosh’s inability to be elected as the President of the Indian National Congress.

11. Consider the following freedom fighters. UPPSC (Pre) 2022

1. Barindra Kumar Ghosh

2. Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee

3. Rash Behari Bose

Who of the above was/were actively associated with the Ghadar Party?

(a) 1 and 2

(b) Only 2

 (c) 1 and 3 

(d) Only 3

12.  Which among the following organisations was responsible for throwing a bomb at Viceroy Lord Hardinge in Delhi?

(a) All India Labour (b) Yugantar Association

(c) United Patriotic (d) Anushilan Samiti Association

13. Consider the following statements with reference to Madam Bhikaji Cama. IAS (Pre) 2006

1. Madam Cama unfurled the National Flag at the International Socialist Conference held at Stutgart in the year 1907.

2. Madam Cama was the Personal Secretary of Dadabhai Naoroji.

3. Madam Cama’s parents were Parsis.

Which of the above statements) is/are correct?

(a) 1, 2 and 3

 (b) 2 and 3

 (c) 1 and 2

 (d) Only 3

14. In 1918, the United Provinces Kisan Sabha was formed by which of the following leaders? UPPSC (Mains) 2012

(a) Indra Narayan Dwivedi

(b) Swami Sahjanand Saraswati

(c) Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru

(d) Baba Ramchandra

Know Right Answer

1 (d)

2 (b)

3 (d)

4 (c)

5 (a)

6 (d)

7 (a)

8 (d)

9 (c)

10 (b)

11 (d)

12 (d)

13 (a)

14 (d)

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q: What was the significance of the formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885?

A: The formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 marked a crucial milestone in India’s political history. Its primary significance lay in providing a platform for educated Indians to articulate their political demands and grievances. The INC became the nucleus of the Indian National Movement, paving the way for future political leaders to work towards self-governance and national independence.

Q: How did the INC evolve in its early years, and what were its major objectives during the Phase I of the Indian National Movement?

A: In its early years, the INC primarily focused on constitutional methods and petitions to address Indian grievances. Its major objectives included obtaining a greater share in governance, civil rights, and administrative reforms. During Phase I, leaders like A.O. Hume, Dadabhai Naoroji, and Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee played key roles in shaping the INC’s agenda and advocating for Indian interests within the framework of the British colonial system.

Q: What role did leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal play in the early nationalist movement?

A: Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal, often referred to as the ‘Lal-Bal-Pal’ trio, were instrumental in injecting a more assertive and militant character into the Indian National Movement during Phase I. Tilak emphasized the need for self-reliance and Swaraj (self-rule) and used platforms like Kesari and Maratha to propagate nationalist ideas. Bipin Chandra Pal contributed by promoting the concept of Swadeshi and advocating for economic self-sufficiency.

Q: Explain the significance of the partition of Bengal in 1905 and the subsequent Swadeshi Movement.

A: The partition of Bengal in 1905 was a deliberate strategy by the British to divide and rule, but it ignited widespread protests. The Swadeshi Movement emerged in response, urging Indians to boycott British goods and promote indigenous industries. This movement had far-reaching consequences as it fostered a sense of national unity, encouraged the use of Swadeshi products, and laid the groundwork for more assertive anti-colonial movements.

Q: What were the major developments during the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909, and how did they impact the Indian National Movement?

A: The Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 introduced separate electorates for Muslims and increased Indian representation in legislative councils. While it was a step towards limited self-government, the separate electorates fostered communalism. The reforms failed to satisfy nationalist aspirations, leading to continued demands for constitutional reforms and fueling the momentum for a more comprehensive representation of Indian interests in governance.

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