The Post Gupta Age, spanning roughly from the 6th to the 8th century CE, represents a crucial phase in the ancient history of the Indian subcontinent. Following the decline of the Gupta Empire, this era witnessed significant political, social, and cultural transformations. While the Gupta period is often hailed as a golden age of classical Indian civilization, the Post Gupta Age reflects the dynamic nature of Indian history as it grappled with the aftermath of the Gupta decline. During this time, various regional powers emerged, filling the political void left by the Gupta rulers. This period also witnessed the rise of diverse cultural and religious movements that would shape the socio-religious landscape of India in the centuries to come. Examining the Post Gupta Age provides valuable insight into the complexities of India’s historical narrative and the interplay of regional powers and cultural influences during this transitional phase.
1. Harshavardana: The Last Great Ruler of Ancient India
Introduction
- Harshavardhana ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE.
- His reign marked a transition from the ancient to the medieval period.
- He was the last ruler of the Vardhana Empire.
History and Extent
- The Vardhana Empire became prominent after the decline of the Gupta Empire.
- Harsha became the undisputed ruler of Thaneshwar at the age of 16.
- His empire covered the entire North and North-Western India.
- The Vardhana Empire consisted of areas directly under Harsha’s rule and states and kingdoms that had become feudatories under him.
Administration and the Empire
- Harsha’s administration was similar to that of the Gupta Empire.
- There was no slavery in his empire and people were free to lead their life according to their wishes.
- He took good care of the poor by building rest houses that provided all the amenities required.
- His capital Kannauj attracted many artists, poets, religious leaders and scholars who traveled from far and wide.
- Harsha built a strong army during his rule.
- Independent rulers paid tribute to Harshavardhana and also helped him by supplying military reinforcements.
Art and Education
- Harsha was a patron of both art and education.
- He wrote three Sanskrit plays.
- One-fourth of his revenue went to patronizing scholars.
- Nalanda University was at its zenith during Harsha’s reign.
Society and Religion
- The caste system was prevalent among Hindus.
- The status of women declined as compared to the liberal era of earlier times.
- Harsha was a worshipper of Shiva in the beginning but later became a Mahayana Buddhist.
- He was tolerant of other faiths.
Death and Legacy
- Harsha’s empire marked the beginning of feudalism in India.
- The land was granted in villages, which made the local landlords powerful.
- After ruling over most parts of North India for more than 40 years, Harsha died.
2. Pallavas
The Pallavas were a dynasty that ruled over southeastern India from the 3rd to the 9th centuries CE. This article discusses their history and administration.
History
Early Pallavas: They rose to power during the latter part of the Ikshvaku rule in Andhra. Simhavarma defeated the Ikshvaku king Rudrapurushadatta in 300 CE and established Pallava rule in Coastal Andhra.
Imperial Pallavas: Simhavishnu was the first ruler of this line, who defeated the Kalabhras and established the “Age of the Imperial Pallavas.” Narasimhavarman I was the greatest of the Pallavas who raised the power and prestige of the dynasty to an amazing height. Mahendravarman II ruled for only two years before being killed by Chalukya king Vikramaditya I.
End of Pallava Rule: Vikramaditya II’s attack and the temporary occupation of Kanchi marked the beginning of the end of the Pallava supremacy over South India. The Pandyas, western Gangas, and Rashtrakutas attacked the Pallava kingdom. The Pallava rule lasted until the end of the 9th Century CE.
Administration
- The Pallavas had a well-organized administrative system.
- Monarchy was the order of the day.
- The king was the head of the state, the fountain of honor, the judge, and the leader of the armed forces.
- The Pallava state was divided into Kottams, which were administered by officers appointed by the king.
- The village was the basic unit of administration.
- Different types of villages existed during this period, such as villages with inter-caste populations, Brahmadeya, and Devadana.
- The village administration was run by various local autonomous assemblies.
- Every village had a court of justice, viz. Dharamasasana.
- Every village was provided with professional servants like potters, weavers, carpenters, smiths, etc.
- The village acted like self-sufficient miniature republics in the Pallava period.
- Entrusting the administration of a smaller territory to an assembly or a local autonomous institution appears to be a very important feature of the Pallava polity.
- Land revenue was the major source of income.
- The Pallavas also levied taxes on professions, marriages, manufacture of salt, sugar and textiles, draught cattle, etc.,
- It is evident from the testimony of Hiuen Tsang that the people were very hard working and the soil was very fertile, the laborers who did agricultural work were paid in kind.
Religion
- Buddhism and Jainism were active in the Pallava kingdom but lost patronage and support to the rise of the Vedic religion.
- Pallava kings followed both Vaishnavism and Saivism and performed Vedic sacrifices.
- The Bhakti movement dominated religious life from the 7th century, with Alvars and Nayanars propagating it.
Sankaracharya advocated Advaita philosophy to make Vedic philosophy comprehensible and acceptable.
Education and Literature
- Pallavas were patrons of learning, with the University of Kanchi attracting students from India and abroad.
- Several works in Sanskrit and Tamil literature were produced, including the Kiratarjuniyam, Dasakumaracharita, and Mahabharata.
- Thevaram and Nalayaradivyaprabhandam represent the religious literature of the period.
- Tamil devotional saints used music and dance in temple festivals.
Art and Architecture
- The religious revival gave impetus to architectural activity.
- Pallavas contributed greatly to Indian Art and Architecture, with the evolution from cave temples to structural temples.
- Pancha Pandava Rathas at Mamallapuram represents five different styles of architecture.
- Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and Shore temple at Mamallapuram are examples of early structural temples.
- Pallavas contributed to sculpture, with masterpieces such as the Descent of the Ganges or Penance of Arjuna.
- Music, dance, and painting also developed under Pallava patronage, with paintings at the caves of Sittannavasal.
Legacy
Pallavas became torch-bearers of Hindu culture in Southeast Asia, paving the way for the creation of Greater India.
The Pallavas were a dynasty that ruled over southeastern India from the 3rd to the 9th centuries CE. This article discusses their history and administration.
History
Early Pallavas: They rose to power during the latter part of the Ikshvaku rule in Andhra. Simhavarma defeated the Ikshvaku king Rudrapurushadatta in 300 CE and established Pallava rule in Coastal Andhra.
Imperial Pallavas: Simhavishnu was the first ruler of this line, who defeated the Kalabhras and established the “Age of the Imperial Pallavas.” Narasimhavarman I was the greatest of the Pallavas who raised the power and prestige of the dynasty to an amazing height. Mahendravarman II ruled for only two years before being killed by Chalukya king Vikramaditya I.
End of Pallava Rule: Vikramaditya II’s attack and the temporary occupation of Kanchi marked the beginning of the end of the Pallava supremacy over South India. The Pandyas, western Gangas, and Rashtrakutas attacked the Pallava kingdom. The Pallava rule lasted until the end of the 9th Century CE.
Administration
- The Pallavas had a well-organized administrative system.
- Monarchy was the order of the day.
- The king was the head of the state, the fountain of honor, the judge, and the leader of the armed forces.
- The Pallava state was divided into Kottams, which were administered by officers appointed by the king.
- The village was the basic unit of administration.
- Different types of villages existed during this period, such as villages with inter-caste populations, Brahmadeya, and Devadana.
- The village administration was run by various local autonomous assemblies.
- Every village had a court of justice, viz. Dharamasasana.
- Every village was provided with professional servants like potters, weavers, carpenters, smiths, etc.
- The village acted like self-sufficient miniature republics in the Pallava period.
- Entrusting the administration of a smaller territory to an assembly or a local autonomous institution appears to be a very important feature of the Pallava polity.
- Land revenue was the major source of income.
- The Pallavas also levied taxes on professions, marriages, manufacture of salt, sugar and textiles, draught cattle etc.,
- It is evident from the testimony of Hiuen Tsang that the people were very hard working and the soil was very fertile, the labourers who did agricultural work were paid in kind.
Religion:
- Buddhism and Jainism were active in the Pallava kingdom but lost patronage and support to rise of the Vedic religion.
- Pallava kings followed both Vaishnavism and Saivism and performed Vedic sacrifices.
- The Bhakti movement dominated religious life from the 7th century, with Alvars and Nayanars propagating it.
Sankaracharya advocated Advaita philosophy to make Vedic philosophy comprehensible and acceptable.
Education and Literature:
- Pallavas were patrons of learning, with the University of Kanchi attracting students from India and abroad.
- Several works in Sanskrit and Tamil literature were produced, including the Kiratarjuniyam, Dasakumaracharita, and Mahabharata.
- Thevaram and Nalayaradivyaprabhandam represent the religious literature of the period.
- Tamil devotional saints used music and dance in temple festivals.
Art and Architecture:
- The religious revival gave impetus to architectural activity.
- Pallavas contributed greatly to Indian Art and Architecture, with the evolution from cave temples to structural temples.
- Pancha Pandava Rathas at Mamallapuram represents five different styles of architecture.
- Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and Shore temple at Mamallapuram are examples of early structural temples.
- Pallavas contributed to sculpture, with masterpieces such as the Descent of the Ganges or Penance of Arjuna.
- Music, dance, and painting also developed under Pallava patronage, with paintings at the caves of Sittannavasal.
Legacy:
Pallavas became torch-bearers of Hindu culture in Southeast Asia, paving the way for the creation of Greater India.
The Pallavas were a dynasty that ruled over southeastern India from the 3rd to the 9th centuries CE. This article discusses their history and administration.
History
Early Pallavas: They rose to power during the latter part of the Ikshvaku rule in Andhra. Simhavarma defeated the Ikshvaku king Rudrapurushadatta in 300 CE and established Pallava rule in Coastal Andhra.
Imperial Pallavas: Simhavishnu was the first ruler of this line, who defeated the Kalabhras and established the “Age of the Imperial Pallavas.” Narasimhavarman I was the greatest of the Pallavas who raised the power and prestige of the dynasty to an amazing height. Mahendravarman II ruled for only two years before being killed by Chalukya king Vikramaditya I.
End of Pallava Rule: Vikramaditya II’s attack and the temporary occupation of Kanchi marked the beginning of the end of the Pallava supremacy over South India. The Pandyas, western Gangas, and Rashtrakutas attacked the Pallava kingdom. The Pallava rule lasted until the end of the 9th Century CE.
Administration
- The Pallavas had a well-organized administrative system.
- Monarchy was the order of the day.
- The king was the head of the state, the fountain of honor, the judge, and the leader of the armed forces.
- The Pallava state was divided into Kottams, which were administered by officers appointed by the king.
- The village was the basic unit of administration.
- Different types of villages existed during this period, such as villages with inter-caste populations, Brahmadeya, and Devadana.
- The village administration was run by various local autonomous assemblies.
- Every village had a court of justice, viz. Dharamasasana.
- Every village was provided with professional servants like potters, weavers, carpenters, smiths, etc.
- The village acted like self-sufficient miniature republics in the Pallava period.
- Entrusting the administration of a smaller territory to an assembly or a local autonomous institution appears to be a very important feature of the Pallava polity.
- Land revenue was the major source of income.
- The Pallavas also levied taxes on professions, marriages, manufacture of salt, sugar and textiles, draught cattle etc.,
- It is evident from the testimony of Hiuen Tsang that the people were very hard working and the soil was very fertile, the laborers who did agricultural work were paid in kind.
Religion:
- Buddhism and Jainism were active in the Pallava kingdom but lost patronage and support to rise of the Vedic religion.
- Pallava kings followed both Vaishnavism and Saivism and performed Vedic sacrifices.
- Bhakti movement dominated religious life from the 7th century, with Alvars and Nayanars propagating it.
Sankaracharya advocated Advaita philosophy to make Vedic philosophy comprehensible and acceptable.
Education and Literature:
- Pallavas were patrons of learning, with the University of Kanchi attracting students from India and abroad.
- Several works in Sanskrit and Tamil literature were produced, including the Kiratarjuniyam, Dasakumaracharita, and Mahabharata.
- Thevaram and Nalayaradivyaprabhandam represent the religious literature of the period.
- Tamil devotional saints used music and dance in temple festivals.
Art and Architecture:
- The religious revival gave impetus to architectural activity.
- Pallavas contributed greatly to Indian Art and Architecture, with the evolution from cave temples to structural temples.
- Pancha Pandava Rathas at Mamallapuram represents five different styles of architecture.
- Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and Shore temple at Mamallapuram are examples of early structural temples.
- Pallavas contributed to sculpture, with masterpieces such as the Descent of the Ganges or Penance of Arjuna.
- Music, dance, and painting also developed under Pallava patronage, with paintings at the caves of Sittannavasal.
Legacy:
Pallavas became torch-bearers of Hindu culture in Southeast Asia, paving the way for the creation of Greater India.
3. Chalukya Dynasty in India
The Chalukya dynasty ruled large parts of southern and central India between the sixth and twelfth centuries. They ruled as three closely related, but individual dynasties.
Chalukyas of Badami
- The Badami Chalukyas ruled from their capital Badami from the middle of the sixth century.
- The Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan after the death of Pulakesi II.
- The Western Chalukyas ruled from Basavakalyan till the end of the twelfth century.
- The rise of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka.
Chalukyas of Kalyani
- The Chalukyas revived their fortunes in 973 C.E. after over 200 years of dormancy when the Rashtrakutas dominated much of the Deccan.
- Scholars widely considered Vikramaditya VI the greatest ruler of the dynasty.
- The Western Chalukyas went into their final dissolution in 1180 with the rise of the Hoysalas, Kakatiya, and Sauna.
Eastern Chalukyas
- Pulakeshin II conquered the eastern Deccan, corresponding to the coastal districts of modern Andhra Pradesh.
- The eleventh century saw the birth of Telugu literature under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas.
Significance of the Chalukya Dynasty
- The rise of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka.
- For the first time in history, a South Indian kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers.
- The birth of efficient administration, the rise in overseas trade and commerce, and the development of a new style of architecture called Vesara.
- Growth of Kannada as a language of literature in the Jaina Puranas, Veerashaiva Vachanas, and Brahmanical traditions.
Sources of Chalukyan History
- Inscriptions constitute the main source of information about the Badami Chalukya history.
- Important inscriptions are the Badami cave inscriptions, Kappe Arabhatta record, Peddavaduguru inscription of Pulakesi II, the Kanchi Kailasanatha inscription, and Pattadakal Virupaksha Temple inscriptions of Vikramaditya II.
- Hiuen-Tsiang, a Chinese traveler, visited the court of Pulakesi II.
- Vidyapati Bilhana, the famous poet in the court of Vikramaditya VI of the Western Chalukya dynasty of Kalyana, mentions a legend in his work, Vikramankadeva Charita, which has been used to reconstruct history.
History and Culture of the Chalukya Dynasty
Chalukyas of Badami
- Established by Pulakesi I in 550, with the decline of the Gupta dynasty in northern India.
- Made Vatapi (Badami in Bagalkot district, Karnataka) their capital and ruled over an empire that comprised Karnataka and most of Andhra Pradesh in the Deccan.
- Pulakesi II extended the Chalukya Empire and defeated Harsha on the banks of the river Narmada.
- Brief decline following Pulakesi II’s death due to internal feuds, which recovered under Vikramaditya I, and reached a peak during the rule of Vikramaditya II.
- Overthrown by the Rashtrakuta Dantidurga in 753.
Chalukyas of Kalyani
- Revived their fortunes in 973 C.E. after a period of dormancy when the Rashtrakutas dominated much of the Deccan.
- Tailapa II re-established the Chalukyan kingdom and recovered most of the Chalukya empire.
- Scholars widely considered Vikramaditya VI the greatest ruler of the dynasty, and his 50-year reign was called Chalukya Vikrama Era.
- The final dissolution occurred in 1180 with the rise of the Hoysalas, Kakatiya, and Sauna.
Eastern Chalukyas
- Pulakeshin II conquered the eastern Deccan in 616, defeating the remnants of the Vishnukundina kingdom.
- After Pulakeshin II’s death, the Vengi Viceroyalty developed into an independent kingdom.
- Territorial disputes flared up between the Rashtrakutas and the Eastern Chalukyas following the decline of the Badami Chalukya empire in the mid-8th century.
- Fortunes of the Eastern Chalukyas took a turn around 1000 C.E.
Art and Architecture
- Badami Chalukya dynasty saw art flourish in South India, particularly in the evolution and proliferation of a new style of architecture known as Vesara.
- Karnataka Dravida style of architecture took shape in the Deccan during that time, combining South Indian and North Indian building styles.
- Kalyani Chalukyas further refined the Vesara style with an inclination towards Dravidian concepts, especially in the sculptures.
- Monuments include Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Badami and Aihole rock-cut temples.
- Pattadakal is known for its blend of North and South Indian temple architecture.
Literature
- The Chalukya rule embodies a major event in the history of Kannada and Telugu languages.
- The Kannada language saw some of its greatest writers during the ninth – tenth century, including Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna, and Ranna.
- Patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas gave birth to Telugu literature in the eleventh century.
- Somesvara III compiled an encyclopedia of all arts and sciences called “Manasollasa.”
- From the period of the Badami Chalukya, no major Kannada literary work has been recovered, though many works have been referenced in later centuries.
- The extant Kappe Arabhatta record of 700 in a tripod (three lines) meter represents the earliest work in Kannada poetics.
- The literary work Karnateshwara Katha, quoted later by Jayakirti, belonged to the period of Pulakesi II with the great king himself as the hero.
- Other Kannada writers of that time included Syamakundacharya of 650 who wrote Prabhrita, the celebrated Srivaradhadeva also called Tumubuluracharya of 650 (who wrote Chudamani, a commentary on Tattvartha-maha shastra in 96,000 verses)
Badami Chalukya Government:
- Army: consisted of infantry, cavalry, elephant corps, and a powerful navy
- Taxation: levied taxes called Herjunka, Kirukula, Bilkode, and Pannaya
- Land governance: divided into maharashtrakas, Rashtrakas, Vishaya, Bhoga, and had autonomous regions ruled by feudatories
- Agraharas: groups of mahajanas looked after places of higher learning
- Coinage: minted coins of a different standard, had Nagari and Kannada, and symbols of temples, lion, boar, and lotus
- Religion: followed Vedic Hinduism, took an inclination towards Shaivism and encouraged Jainism
- Society: The Hindu caste system appeared, Sati may have been absent, devadasis appeared in temples, and women enjoyed political power in administration
Conclusion:
- Beginning of the fusion of cultures of northern and southern India during the Chalukya era
- Vesara style of architecture was created, which includes elements of northern nagara and southern Dravida styles
- The Bhakti movement gained momentum in south India during the Chalukya rule, spreading later to north India
Related aspects in News:
- Chalukya Utsav, a three-day festival of music and dance, organized by the Government of Karnataka, is held every year at Pattadakal, Badami, and Aihole
- Celebration of the achievements of the Chalukyas in art, craft, music, and dance
- Inaugurated by the Chief Minister of Karnataka artists from all over the country take part in this event.
In case you still have your doubts, contact us on 9811333901.
For UPSC Prelims Resources, Click here
For Daily Updates and Study Material:
Join our Telegram Channel – Edukemy for IAS
- 1. Learn through Videos – here
- 2. Be Exam Ready by Practicing Daily MCQs – here
- 3. Daily Newsletter – Get all your Current Affairs Covered – here
- 4. Mains Answer Writing Practice – here
