The inception of modern India’s history can be traced back to the arrival of Europeans on its shores. This pivotal moment occurred in 1498 when Vasco da Gama discovered a new maritime route to India via the Cape of Good Hope. Following this breakthrough, trade flourished, leading to the establishment of various commercial enterprises that sought to create trading hubs in India. As Europeans set foot in the region, a consequential development emerged – a political rivalry between different groups. Over time, Europeans, to safeguard their interests, began to intervene in and assert dominance over Indian politics.
The Dutch, English, French, Danish, and other prominent European powers gradually forged economic connections with the Indian Subcontinent. This article provides insights into the Advent of the Europeans in India UPSC notes, offering valuable information to aid in your preparation for the IAS exam.
The advent of Europeans in India
Numerous sites in the Indian subcontinent played pivotal roles as trading hubs in both ancient and medieval times. The exchange of goods between India and European nations thrived long before the formal establishment of British rule in India. The Oxus Valley, Egypt, and Syria served as crucial overland trade routes connecting India to Europe. The 15th century witnessed extensive exploration of Europe’s land and waterways, further enhancing the trade links between the two regions.
In 1492, Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer, is credited with the discovery of America, while in 1498, Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, established a new maritime route linking Europe and India. This breakthrough prompted various European trading firms to relocate to India and establish their operations. The European presence in India unfolded in successive stages.
Portuguese traders were the initial European arrivals in India, and they were succeeded by the British, Dutch, Danes, and French. Subsequently, these European powers developed aspirations for political dominance in India.
The advent of Europeans in India – New Routes
Owing to the heightened demand for European commodities, goods from India had to traverse multiple countries and pass through various intermediaries. These imported items were then subjected to tolls and charges imposed by rulers in the Middle East and North Africa. Consequently, European trading companies sought to establish their business centers within India to enhance profits, prompting them to sail directly to the region and resulting in the establishment of European companies in India.
However, maritime trade posed numerous challenges, including piracy and natural disasters. The conquests by Arabs in the seventh century disrupted the ancient trade routes through Egypt, the Persian Gulf, and Syria. This led to the monopolization of trade with India, with Indian goods being transported to marketplaces in the Levant.
Furthermore, the overland route was blocked when the Turks seized Constantinople in 1453. Venetian and Genoese merchants assumed control of the trade between Europe and Asia, refusing to share it with emerging nation-states in Western Europe, particularly Spain and Portugal.
Advent of Europeans in India Chronological Order
| Event | Year | Place |
| Arrival of the Portuguese | 1498 | Calicut, Kerala |
| Arrival of the British | 1600 | Gujarat |
| Arrival of the Dutch | 1602 | Masulipatnam, Andhra Pradesh |
| Arrival of the Danes | 1616 | Tamil Nadu |
| Arrival of the French | 1664 | Pondicherry |
| Commencement of Formal British | 1757 | – |
The advent of Europeans in India: Arrival of Portuguese
The initiation of European involvement in India can be attributed to the Portuguese, who were the first to discover a direct sea route to India. This pivotal development was marked by the establishment of a nautical school in Portugal by Prince Henry, the Navigator, heralding the commencement of the European Age of Discovery. The advancement of cutting-edge ships, including the Caravel, the Carrack, and the Galleon, by Portugal, facilitated maritime navigation for the first time in history.
Under the Portuguese Empire, significant portions of the world’s coastlines and maritime routes to both the East and West were mapped and explored. This era witnessed remarkable expeditions, such as the discovery of the sea route to India via the Cape of Good Hope. Vasco da Gama, who reached Calicut through the Cape of Good Hope in May 1498 and received a warm welcome from the local ruler, the Zamorin (Samoothiri), led the first Portuguese mission. The second mission was dispatched in 1500 under the command of Pedro Alvares Cabral.
As the pioneer European trading corporation, the Portuguese Enterprise established commercial stations in India, including trading outposts at Cochin, Goa, Daman and Diu, Salsette and Bassein, and Bombay. The Portuguese introduced the Cartaz System, a maritime trade license or permit, in the Indian Ocean during the sixteenth century (approximately 1502-1750) when the Portuguese Empire held sway.
With control over export-import activities across the Indian Ocean, the Portuguese implemented the Cartaz System strategically. Their influence in India brought about the initiation of tobacco cultivation, shipbuilding (in Gujarat and Calicut), and the utilization of the printing press. Furthermore, the Portuguese played a role in shaping Gothic architecture in India.
The Decline of the Portuguese
The influence of Portuguese trade with India waned at the outset of the 18th century, and this decline was attributable to various factors. These included their lack of tolerance for other religions, engaging in piracy in the Bay of Bengal, the succession of weak leaders following Albuquerque, the downfall of the Vijayanagara empire, conflicts with Spain, and the expanding presence of the English and the Dutch in India, among other reasons.
The disintegration of the Portuguese Empire in India stemmed from the ineffective leadership of governors who succeeded Afonso de Albuquerque. The Portuguese, characterized by religious intolerance and fanaticism, sought to impose Christianity forcefully on the native population. This approach starkly contrasted with the prevailing religious tolerance in India, leading to strong opposition from the local people.
Advent of Europeans in India: Arrival of British
The arrival of the British marked a pivotal moment in the unfolding history of Europeans in India. In 1599, a consortium of British merchants established the “Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading to the East Indies,” exclusively for trading with India. Queen Elizabeth I granted the company a royal charter on December 31, 1600, conferring the right to engage in commerce solely with Eastern nations for 15 years.
In 1608, under the orders of James I of England, Captain William Hawkins was dispatched to Jahangir’s court to seek permission to establish trading posts in India. As the first British individual to reach India by sea, Hawkins faced initial opposition from the Portuguese and local traders in Surat. However, the tide turned in favor of the British after English captain Henry Middleton defeated the Portuguese naval contingent in the Battle of Bombay (1611), prompting the emperor’s approval for British trading activities.
Subsequently, in 1613, the Mughal emperor granted an imperial firman, authorizing the establishment of the East India Company’s factory in Surat. However, the British sought further concessions, leading to a second mission in 1615 under Sir Thomas Roe. This time, Jahangir granted permission for the construction of factories anywhere within the Mughal Empire. Consequently, British establishments were founded in Bharuch, Ahmedabad, and Agra.
The British set up their first factory in Masulipattam in 1611, followed by Surat in 1613, Madras in 1639, Hooghly in 1642, and Balasore in 1633. In 1691, a yearly payment of Rs 3000 secured the East India Company exclusive trading rights in Bengal without customs duties. The Subedar of Bengal, Azim Ush Shan, granted the British zamindari rights to Sutanuti, Kalikata, and Gobindpur, where the cities of Calcutta and Fort William were established.
Additionally, in 1662, King Charles received Bombay as a dowry from the Portuguese, subsequently leasing it to the East India Company. The company obtained permission from the King of Chandragiri in 1639 to build a factory near Madras, where Fort St. George had already been erected. Emperor Farrukhsiyar, in 1717, reaffirmed the company’s rights and granted new privileges, including the ability to trade tax-free from Bengal in exchange for an annual payment of Rs 3,000. Furthermore, the company gained the right to use the Bombay Mint for coin production, a set of privileges commonly known as “the Magna Carta of the East India Company.”
The advent of Europeans in India: Arrival of Dutch
Furthermore, the Dutch established their trade centers in India, with Cornelis de Houtman being the first Dutchman to set foot in the country. In 1602, the Dutch East India Company, known as Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC), was founded. Successfully overcoming the Portuguese, they gained control of Indian regions renowned for spice cultivation. Trading posts were established in Gujarat, Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
The inaugural Dutch factory was established in Masulipattam in 1605, followed by significant factories in Pulikat (1610), Surat (1616), Kasim Bazar, Patna, Balasore, Nagapattnam, and Cochin. The first Dutch factory in Bengal was founded in Peepli in 1627. The Dutch primarily traded in rice, opium, raw silk, indigo, and spices, with Pulicat initially serving as their major center until Nagapattinam eventually assumed its position.
The Dutch trading system operated on the cartel model, offering shareholders a groundbreaking 18% dividend, considered a pioneering development in commercial history. However, the Dutch encountered defeats in the Battle of Colachel in 1741 against the Travancore ruler Marthanda Verma and in the Battle of Bedara in 1759 against Robert Clive’s British forces. The decline of the Dutch can be attributed to factors such as a faltering economy, excessive centralization, spice trade dominance, the relative weakness of the Dutch navy compared to the British, and other contributing factors.
The Decline of Dutch in India
English retaliation brought an end to Dutch aspirations in India, culminating in their defeat at the Battle of Hooghly in November 1759. Unlike the pursuit of imperial ambitions, the Dutch were primarily focused on trade in India. Their substantial profits came from their primary commercial interest in the Indonesian Spice Islands.
Advent of Europeans in India: Arrival of Danes
Denmark, known for its people as Danish or Danes, held colonial territories in India for 225 years. Notable among these were the settlements of Tranquebar in Tamil Nadu, Serampore in Bengal, and the Nicobar Islands, all constituting part of Denmark’s possessions in India, with Serampore serving as their Indian headquarters. Dutch explorer Marcelis de Boshouwer played a pivotal role in instigating Danish engagement in the Indian subcontinent.
Seeking armed assistance against the Portuguese, de Boshouwer proposed a promise of exclusive control over all business dealings in return. Christian IV, the King of Denmark-Norway, was persuaded by his rationale, leading to the authorization of the Danish East India Company with a 12-year trade monopoly between Denmark and Asia, as documented in a charter signed in 1616.
In 1799, Danish missionaries established the Serampore Mission Press in Serampore. Despite their efforts, the Danes couldn’t firmly establish their presence in India, ultimately selling all their outposts to the British in 1845.
Advent of Europeans in India: Arrival of French
The French, being the final Europeans to set foot in India, conclude the list of the European advents in India. The French Trading Company initiated in 1664 under the rule of Louis XIV and facilitated by his minister Colbert, operated under government supervision, funding, and control. The inaugural French factory in India was established by François Caron in Surat in 1667.
Subsequently, Marcara obtained approval from the Golkonda king to set up a factory in Masulipattam in 1669, while François Martin orchestrated the establishment of Pondicherry in 1673. The Nawab of Bengal, Shaista Khan, allocated a site in Chandranagar for the construction of a trading post.
In 1690, the French seized Chandranagore, located near Calcutta, from Governor Shaista Khan. Industries were developed by the French in Karaikal, Balasore, Mahe, and Qasim Bazar. The Anglo-French conflict ensued with the arrival of French administrator Joseph Francois Dupleix in India around 1742, leading to the culmination of the Carnatic wars.
The Decline of French in India
The restructuring of the French East India Company in 1720 was prompted by the diminishing French influence in India from 1706 to 1720. Governors Lenoir and Dumas, in the period between 1720 and 1742, successfully reinstated French power in India. In 1725, they gained control of Mahe in Malabar, Yanam in the Coromandel, and Karaikal in Tamil Nadu (1739). The onset of the Anglo-French conflict, also known as the Carnatic wars, leading to their eventual defeat in India, commenced in 1742 with the appointment of Dupleix as the French administrator in India.
The Arrival of Europeans in India: Conclusion
Initially arriving in India for trade, Europeans eventually asserted control over the country’s politics and administration. The Portuguese were the pioneers, embarking on their journey to India following Vasco da Gama’s establishment of a direct maritime route in 1498. Subsequently, in 1600, Queen Elizabeth granted exclusive trading rights in the East to English merchants who formed the East India Company. This marked the beginning of British dominance in India, a period that lasted for more than 200 years.
Why the English Succeeded against Other European Powers
During the period when major European powers vied for control and dominance in India, the British ultimately triumphed, securing control over nearly the entire Indian territory. They successfully defeated other European contenders such as the Portuguese, French, Danes, and more.
Forces And Factors Responsible For The Success Of The British In India
The British employed a multifaceted approach to establish and consolidate their control in India, utilizing various strategies and advantages.
- Superior Naval Power: The British harnessed their dominant navy to control sea routes, provide logistical support, secure coastal areas, and conduct effective blockades against adversaries.
- Divide-and-Rule Policy: Exploiting existing rivalries among Indian rulers and communities, the British strategically played factions against each other, creating divisions and weakening unified resistance against their rule.
- Alliances and Diplomacy: Skillful in forming alliances with discontented Indian rulers, the British leveraged these partnerships to weaken opposing forces and garner support for their expansion. Diplomatic negotiations further enhanced their influence.
- Technological Advancements: Introducing advanced technology and infrastructure, such as railways and telegraph lines, the British facilitated efficient governance, trade, and military operations, enhancing their control over Indian territories.
- Administrative Efficiency: Establishing a well-organized administrative system characterized by efficient bureaucracy and clear legal frameworks, the British implemented reforms in revenue collection, judicial systems, and governance to provide stability and facilitate their rule.
- Merit-Based Officer Selection: Unlike Indian rulers who often appointed based on heredity or personal relations, the British selected officers based on merit, ensuring competent leadership in their ranks.
- Quality of Leadership: British leaders like Robert Clive and Arthur Wellesley displayed exceptional leadership skills, supported by a strong second line of leadership, giving them strategic advantages over Indian rulers.
- Financial Strength: With sufficient financial resources from prosperous trade activities, the British had the means to pay shareholders, finance wars, and gain an edge over Indian rulers who faced financial constraints.
- Support from Indian Allies: Forming alliances with Indian rulers who saw them as protectors, the British received military support, local knowledge, and intelligence, strengthening their position in India.
- Propaganda and Diplomacy: Employing effective propaganda campaigns and portraying themselves as more civilized, the British used diplomacy, treaties, and alliances to secure their interests and expand control.
- Economic Exploitation: Implementing policies that prioritized their economic interests, the British extracted resources, imposed heavy taxes, and controlled trade, consolidating their power in India.
- Adaptation to Local Conditions: Displaying flexibility, the British adapted to local customs, traditions, and employed locals in administrative roles to maintain continuity and stability during the transition of power.
- Military Alliances and Superior Strategy: Forming military alliances with Indian princes, the British employed superior military tactics, disciplined infantry, and well-organized formations, often outmatching their opponents.
- Political Fragmentation of Indian States: Exploiting the division of independent and warring states, the British took advantage of rivalries, expanding their influence and establishing dominance.
- Lack of National Pride and Unity among Indian Rulers: The absence of a unified sense of political nationalism among Indian rulers allowed the British to exploit divisions and weaken resistance, as rulers often engaged in internal conflicts.
How did forming alliances with Indian rulers contribute to fortifying the British position in India?
- Military Backing: Collaborations with Indian rulers supplied troops and resources, enhancing the military strength of the British.
- Strategic Upper Hand: Alliances conferred a competitive advantage upon the British, facilitating territorial expansion.
- Undermining Opposition: The exploitation of rivalries weakened unified resistance against the British.
- Political Dominion: Alliances granted the British control and sway over the states allied with them.
- Diplomatic Strength: Collaborative partnerships improved the diplomatic standing of the British with other Indian rulers and European powers.
- Intelligence and Local Assistance: Alliances offered crucial intelligence and local support to the British.
Conclusion
To sum up, the British triumph in India can be ascribed to a confluence of factors. Their dominance in naval power, adept utilization of alliances and diplomacy, technological advancements, administrative efficiency, and robust financial support were pivotal contributors. Exploiting divisions among Indian rulers, implementing a divide-and-rule strategy, and capitalizing on the absence of national pride and unity further solidified the British position. Together, these elements facilitated the establishment and consolidation of British rule in India.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Q: When did the Europeans first arrive in India?
A: The Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in India in 1498, led by Vasco da Gama. He reached the shores of Calicut (present-day Kozhikode) in Kerala.
Q: Why did the Europeans come to India?
A: The primary motives were economic, including the desire for spices, particularly pepper. They also sought to establish trade routes to access the lucrative markets of the East.
Q: Which European powers were involved in India during the colonial period?
A: The major European powers involved in India during the colonial period were the Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French. Each established their own trading posts and colonies.
Q: What impact did the arrival of Europeans have on Indian trade and economy?
A: The arrival of Europeans had a profound impact on Indian trade and economy. The introduction of new crops, trade practices, and economic policies significantly altered the traditional Indian economic system.
Q: Which was the first European colony in India?
A: The Portuguese established the first European colony in India with the capture of Goa in 1510.
Q: What was the significance of the Battle of Plassey in 1757?
A: The Battle of Plassey marked a significant turning point in Indian history. The British East India Company’s victory over the Nawab of Bengal established British control over Bengal, laying the foundation for British dominance in India.
Q: How did the Europeans influence Indian culture and society?
A: European influence had both positive and negative effects on Indian culture and society. While there was an exchange of ideas, technologies, and cultural practices, there was also significant cultural appropriation and imposition of European values.
Q: What role did the East India Company play in India?
A: The East India Company, established in 1600, played a crucial role in British expansion in India. It initially focused on trade but gradually became involved in politics and governance, eventually becoming a major political and economic power.
Q: How did the Europeans impact the political landscape of India?
A: European powers played a significant role in shaping the political landscape of India through alliances, conflicts, and the establishment of colonial administrations. This ultimately led to the decline of indigenous political powers.
Q: When did India gain independence from European colonial rule?
A: India gained independence from British colonial rule on August 15, 1947, marking the end of a long struggle for freedom led by Indian leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru.
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