The Medieval period in Indian history witnessed significant transformations, particularly with the advent of Arab and Turkish invasions. These invasions marked pivotal moments in shaping the socio-political landscape of the Indian subcontinent. The encounters between the indigenous cultures and the Arab and Turkish forces led to a fusion of ideas, traditions, and governance structures. To comprehend the intricacies of this era, delving into the UPSC NCERT Notes on Medieval History becomes indispensable. These meticulously curated notes offer a comprehensive understanding of the Arab and Turkish invasions, shedding light on their motivations, strategies, and lasting impacts on Indian society. Through the lens of these notes, one can navigate the complex tapestry of medieval India, unraveling the dynamics of power, religion, and cultural exchange that defined this transformative period.
Development of Islam in West and Central Asia
- The introduction of Islam to India transpired during medieval times following the decline of Rajput kingdoms in the North. In the early seventh century, two Major powers beyond India and China dominated the scene:
- The Sassanid Empire, a Zoroastrian nationalist dynasty, governed Persia (modern-day Iran).
- The Eastern Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire was an orthodox Christian empire (The Catholic Western Roman Empire had already fallen around AD 480).
| Between AD 602 and 628, these empires engaged in continuous warfare, creating a constant state of conflict in the regions around modern-day Iran, Jordan, and Syria. These areas, along with the Arab peninsula, were inhabited by numerous polytheist tribes. |
- The Arab tribes, primarily caravan traders, engaged in the sale of luxury goods to Constantinople and Persia. The wealth generated from the caravan trade routes contributed to the prosperity of Mecca and Medina.
- The prolonged conflict between these powers concluded with the Byzantines emerging victorious over the Persian Sassanid empire. However, the dissolution of the Sassanid empire and the eventual decline of the Byzantines led to a political and religious power vacuum in the Middle-East region.
- The extended conflicts between Rome and Persia resulted in an economic downturn in the region.
- Concurrently, during this era, Muhammad (later known as Prophet Muhammad) was born, having powerful visions of God and the angel Jibril. These visions led him to the Quraysh tribe of Mecca, motivating him to preach a new religion centered around the worship of one God, Allah.
- This nascent religion, Islam, gradually brought together the diverse tribes of Arabia, fostering unity among them.
| Prophet Muhammad is believed to have lived between AD 570 and 632. The migration of the Prophet and his followers from Mecca to Medina occurred in AD 622, as per the Hijri calendar. |
- Following the era of the Prophet, the religious and political leaders of Islam (Ummah) were referred to as the Caliphate.
Political, Economic, and Social Conditions Before Turkish Invasion in India
- Before the Turkish invasion in the 11th and 12th centuries, India lacked political unity. It was characterized by the absence of a single dominant ruler, with numerous small kingdoms engaging in frequent disputes and conflicts.
- Economically, India enjoyed widespread prosperity and held a distinguished reputation worldwide. Unfortunately, this affluence made it susceptible to foreign invasions.
- Socially, India grappled with a distressing condition. The caste system had firmly entrenched itself in society, exerting pervasive and detrimental effects on the overall social fabric.
Major Kingdoms on the Eve of the Turkish Invasion
| Kingdoms | Description |
| Arab kingdoms of Sindh and Multan | Muhammad-bin-Qasim led the Arab invasion of Sindh in AD 712, establishing Arab conquests in Sindh and Multan. Arab rulers owed allegiance to the Caliph of Baghdad but asserted political independence, offering nominal allegiance for diplomatic reasons. |
| Brahmin Hindu Shahi Kingdom | The Hindu Shahi dynasty governed a vast area from the River Chenab to Multan, including the North-West boundary. Due to the emergence of the Ghaznavid empire in Afghanistan, they relocated their capital to the right bank of the River Indus, relinquishing a portion of their kingdom, including Kabul. |
| Kingdom of Kashmir | The 12th-century Rajatarangini by Kalhan provides a comprehensive description of the Kashmiri Kingdom. Kashmir gained independence after the death of Ashoka. |
| Pratihara rulers of Western India | The Pratiharas dominated North India for over two hundred years from the 8th to the 10th century. They resisted Arab incursions from Sindh and defeated the Arabs in the Battle of Rajasthan in AD 738. |
| Palas of Bengal | The Pala kingdom, founded by Gopala in AD 750, is considered the golden period of Bengali history. They built Viharas, magnificent monasteries, and temples like Somapura Mahavihara (in Bangladesh) and Odantapuri monastery. The Pala Dynasty was replaced by the Sena Dynasty around the 12th century. |
| Rashtrakutas of Malkhed | Considered feudatories of the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas had their capital at Manyakheta or Malkhed near Solapur. They engaged in constant battles against the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and the Pallavas of Kanchi, as well as the Pandya of Madurai. |
Arab Conquest of Sindh
- Starting from AD 637, Arabs initiated expeditions to the Western coast of India. In the early AD eighth century, Ceylon’s king dispatched ships to Khalifa (Caliph) Walid, but pirates intercepted them near Debal, a Sindh port, ruled by Hindu Raja Dahir.
- Governor Al-Hajjaj of Basra sought compensation, met with refusal, and sent an expedition in AD 712 led by Muhammad-bin-Qasim, his nephew and son-in-law after previous attempts failed.
Administration under Arab Rule in Sindh
- Arabs governed Sindh for 200 years, introducing an efficient administration with districts (iqtas) assigned to military officers in exchange for military service.
- They followed a tolerant religious policy, allowing those who paid Jizya (Poll tax) to remain non-Muslims, known as Zimmis.
- Muhammad-bin-Qasim imposed Jizya, marking the inception of the system in India.
Impact of Arab Rule on Sindh
- In terms of the growth of Islam in India, the Arab conquest of Sindh is regarded as politically inconsequential, having left no discernible impact on the monarchical nature of Indian polity.
- Despite this, the conquest did lead to the conversion of the Sindh population to Islam, albeit on a limited and temporary scale.
- The Arabs, however, failed to make a lasting imprint on the Indian Social System, but their initial influence laid the groundwork for the establishment of Islam in India.
- The formal slavery system in India was introduced by the Arabs, with the earliest Muslim settlements taking root during their rule.
- Arab dominance in Sindh bolstered trade and facilitated the settlement of more Arabs along the East Coast.
- Arab leather workers imparted their expertise to Sindhi tanners, resulting in the production of high-quality leather that commanded a premium in foreign markets.
Reasons For the Failure of Arabs in India
- The conquest of Sindh by the Arabs proved to be a triumphant but ultimately fruitless endeavor.
- The failure of the Arab forces can be attributed to several factors:
- New Khalifa’s Policy Towards Sindh: The new Khalifa did not derive any tangible benefits from the barren lands of Sindh. Consequently, military support to Sindh was curtailed, leading to a lack of reinforcements.
- The struggle for Khilafat (Caliphate): Infighting over the coveted seat of Khilafat diverted Arab attention away from Sindh, affecting their focus and commitment to the region.
- Distance from Baghdad: The considerable distance between Sindh and Baghdad, the ultimate seat of power for the Arab administration in Sindh, coupled with inadequate communication and transportation, discouraged further military engagements.
Major causes behind the Indian Ruler’s Defeat Against the Turks
The defeat of Indian rulers against Turkish invasions can be attributed to various key factors:
- Political Causes: Disunity among rulers, the absence of a robust central authority, neglect of frontier regions, and the weakening of royal power due to the feudal system and a lack of political acumen were significant political factors contributing to Indian defeat.
- Social Causes: Hinduism’s emphasis on societal fragmentation, in contrast to Islam’s preachings of universal brotherhood, played a crucial role in the social dynamics leading to defeat.
- Religious Causes: The invaders’ commitment to jihad, a crusade to protect and spread Islam, contrasted with the fragmented nature of Hinduism with its diverse sects, contributing to the defeat of the Indian forces.
- Military Causes: The absence of an organized military structure and a defensive mindset among the Indian forces were notable military factors that led to their defeat against the Turks.
- Rulers Engaged in Conflict, Defensive Stance, and Indian Rulers’ Defeat by the Turks
Turkish Invasion
- The Turkish incursion into India occurred in the 11th century, marked by Mahmud of Ghazni’s raids that extended from Afghanistan into the Indian subcontinent.
Ghaznavids
- The Ghaznavid dynasty commenced with Alaptigin, a Turkish slave under the Samanid king Amir-Abu-Bakr Lawik in AD 963. Alaptigin seized control of Kabul, establishing Ghazni as its capital. His capable son-in-law, Subuktigin (AD 977-997), successfully captured territories between Lamghan and Peshawar from the Hindu Shahi ruler Jayapala.
- This expansion limited the Hindu Shahi Kingdom’s control over the advancing Ghaznavids. However, the impact of Subuktigin’s conquests was short-lived. Ismail, Subuktigin’s son, was overthrown by his brother Mahmud in 998, who later became renowned as Mahmud Ghazni.
Mahmud of Ghazni
- Son of Alaptigin, Mahmud organized a robust defense against tribal invaders from Central Asia. Instrumental in the revival of Iranian culture, Mahmud conducted 17 raids into India while promoting art and literature.
- Firdausi, Mahmud’s court poet, produced the Shah Namah, a pinnacle of the Iranian Renaissance. Al-Biruni, a scholar versed in Turki, Sanskrit, Mathematics, Philosophy, Astrology, and History, stayed in Mahmud’s court, composing the famous Kitab-ul-Hind, an account of India.
- Political turmoil in North India post the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty’s collapse facilitated Mahmud’s ambitions.
- He launched an assault on the Hindu Shahi Kings, engaging in war with Jayapala and the Muslim rulers of Multan, Jayapala’s allies. Mahmud’s victory in AD 1001 led to Jayapala’s self-inflicted demise. Subsequently, Anandapala, Jayapala’s son, ascended to the throne.
The Campaigns of Mahmud of Ghazni in India
| Year | Description |
| AD 1000 | Hindu Shahi kingdom was attacked. |
| AD 1001-02 | Peshawar and Waihind attacked; Jayapala taken captive but released on payment of ransom. |
| AD 1004-05 | Attack at the Fort of Bhatya on the trade route from Khyber pass to Multan; Baji/Biji Rai fought heroically but committed suicide to save honor. |
| AD 1006 | Multan attacked; Fateh Daud sought help from Hindu Shahi Anandapala—both were defeated. |
| AD 1006-07 | Biji Rai of Behra defeated; Behra handed over to Sukhpal, converted to Islam but later repudiated it and was dismissed and taken prisoner. |
| AD 1008-09 | Second Battle of Waihind; Plundered rulers of Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar, Kannauj, Delhi, and Ajmer were defeated. |
| AD 1009-10 | Narayanpur near Alwar (Rajasthan) was attacked; ruler defeated and had to part with entire treasury. |
| AD 1010-11 | Multan annexed; King Daud taken prisoner and deposed; Turkish military officer appointed as Governor. |
| AD 1011-12 | Thaneshwar was attacked. |
| AD 1013-14 | Nandana was occupied. |
| AD 1015-16 | Kashmir campaign proves abortive. |
| AD 1018-19 | Kannauj plundered. |
| AD 1020-21 | Kalinjar invaded. |
| AD 1021-22 | Lahore invaded. |
| AD 1025-26 | Plunder at Somnath. |
| AD 1027 | Punitive campaign against Jats of the Indus region. |
Battle of Waihind
- Near Peshawar, Mahmud confronted the Hindu Shahi ruler Anandapala, supported by the ruler of Multan and the Khokhars tribe of Punjab. Mahmud emerged victorious, capturing the lands of both Anandapala and his allies.
- Mahmud’s Significant Assaults on India:
- In AD 1011, Mahmud raided Nagarkot in the Punjab hills and Thaneshwar near Delhi.
- In AD 1018, he conducted a raid on Kannauj and Mathura, looting both cities before departing with immense wealth through Kalinjar, Bundelkhand.
- AD 1025 witnessed the infamous raid on the Somnath Temple, a splendid temple located in the revered coastal town of Kathiawar, amassing substantial wealth.
- Despite his conquests, Mahmud refrained from annexing these states, marching from Multan to Somnath through Rajputana without encountering resistance.
Implications of Mahmud’s Invasion:
- The invasions laid bare India’s military vulnerabilities, resulting in the death of thousands of soldiers in various engagements.
- Following this invasion, which laid the groundwork for Islam in the Indo-Gangetic Plains, Sufis began arriving in Northern India in significant numbers.
- Mahmud plundered and destroyed numerous temples in India, causing significant damage to the country’s art and architecture.
- The invasions revealed weaknesses in India’s political system and among its rulers, rendering the region more susceptible to subsequent invasions.
- By 1186, Eastern Afghanistan and Northern India remained under Ghaznavid control, until Lahore was captured by the Ghurids.
Ghurid Dynasty
- Centered in North-West Afghanistan at Ghur, the Ghurids initially served as local chiefs and vassals of the Ghaznavid empire.
- When Muhammad of Ghori seized control of Lahore from Khusrau Malik in AD 1186, the Ghurid dynasty emerged, ultimately toppling the Ghaznavid empire. Under Sultan Alauddin, the Ghurids rose to prominence.
| Sultan Alauddin earned the title “The Globe Burner” (Jahan Soz) for his mid-12th-century destruction of Ghazni as retribution for the persecution of his brothers there. |
Muhammad Ghori’s Invasions
- In AD 1175, Muhammad Ghori’s initial invasions targeted Multan and the fortress of Uch, conquering areas governed by old Ghaznavid Governors.
- In AD 1178, he attacked Anhilwara in Gujarat but faced defeat at the hands of King Bhima II of the Solanki dynasty in the Battle of Kayadara.
- By AD 1190, Muhammad Ghori had conquered Peshawar, Lahore, and Sialkot, poised for further advances towards Delhi and the Gangetic doab.
First Battle of Tarain
- In AD 1191, Muhammad Ghori captured the fortress of Bhatinda in East Punjab, near Prithviraj Chauhan’s lands. Prithviraj marched to Bhatinda and confronted his adversary at Tarain near the historic town of Thaneshwar.
- The battle commenced with the Ghurid army launching cavalry arrows at the Rajput center. Prithviraj’s forces counter-attacked from three sides, dominating the battle and compelling the Ghurid army to retreat.
- In the First Battle of Tarain, Prithviraj successfully halted the Ghurid’s advance into India.
Second Battle of Terrain
- After his defeat by Prithviraj Chauhan in the First Battle of Tarain in AD 1191, Muhammad Ghori retreated to Ghazni. There, he regrouped, focusing on enhancing firepower, mobility, and discipline as he prepared to re-enter the fray.
- In AD 1192, forces led by Prithviraj Chauhan clashed with the Ghurid army commanded by Muhammad Chori in the Battle of Tarain. Unfortunately, the Rajputs suffered defeat, leaving North India susceptible to subsequent invasions and the rule of Turkic tribes.
- Following the Battle of Tarain, Muhammad appointed Outb-ud-din Aibak, one of his slave Generals, as the Viceroy of the Indian provinces. Aibak successfully conquered Meerut, Bulandshahar, and Aligarh, among others, establishing Delhi as the capital in AD 1193.
Reasons for Prithviraj’s Defeat in the Second Battle of Tarain
- Prithviraj Chauhan’s loss in the Second Battle of Tarain was exacerbated by the absence of allies within his Hindu community. King Jalchand of Kannauj, Prithviraj’s cousin, supported Muhammad Ghori against him, harboring aspirations of claiming the throne of Delhi.
- After his defeat, Muhammad Ghori subjected Hindus to enslavement and orchestrated the destruction of the city and its temples, solidifying the complete dominance of Islam in the region.
Battle of Chandawar
- In AD 1194, Muhammad Ghori embarked on another campaign against Jayachandra of Kannauj. The battle unfolded near Chandawar on the River Yamuna, situated between Etawah and Kannauj.
- King Jayachandra met his defeat and demise in this encounter, granting Muhammad control over a significant portion of Northern India.
Conquest of Bengal and Bihar
- In AD 1197, Muhammad Bhakhtiyar Khilji, a general under Muhammad Ghori, seized Bihar, and in AD 1202, he captured Bengal. During this conquest, he obliterated the renowned universities of Vikramshila and Nalanda, subsequently becoming the Viceroy of Bihar and Bengal.
Revolt of Khokhars
- In AD 1205, Muhammad Ghori initiated his final campaign in India to quell the Khokhar rebellion.
- The Khokhars, a formidable tribe in Western Punjab, disrupted communications between Lahore and Ghazni. Muhammad Ghori met his demise at the hands of Khokhars near the Dhamyak district of Jhelum while returning to Ghazni. This event marked the downfall of the Ghur Empire and the establishment of the Slave Dynasty under Qutb-ud-din Aibak.
Prelims Facts
- The word ‘Hindu’ as a reference to the people of Hind (India) was first used by – The Arabs [IAS (Pre) 1995]
- According to Chach Nama, What was the capital of the Indus country in the sixth and seventh century? – Arod [MPPSC (Pre) 2020]
- In which Year Muhammad-bin-Qasim conquered Sindh? – 712 AD [WBCS (Pre) 2013]
- How many times did Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni invade India – 17 [WBCS (Pre) 2013]
- In which year did Mahmud Ghazni attack the Somnath temple? – 1025 AD ICGPSC (Pre) 2006]
- Who reconstructed the Somnath temple after the Invasion of Mahmud? – Mulraja I/PSC (Pre) 2016]
- Which Chandela king was not defeated by Mahmud Ghazni? – Vidyadhar [UPPSC (Pre) 1991)
- During the invasion of Mahmud Ghazni, which dynasty ruled the region which comprises of Modern Haryana? – Tomar Rajput [HPSC (Pre) 2021]
- Who was the famous historian who visited India with Mahmud Ghazni? – Al-Biruni [JPSC (Pre) 2011]
- Who issued the silver coins with Sanskrit legend on one side? – Mahmud of Ghazni [UPPSC (Pre) 2000]
- Which king was defeated by Muhammad Ghori in the battle of Chandawar? – Jayachandra [MPPSC (Pre) 2017]
- Which slave of Muhammad captured the region of Bengal and Bihar? – Bakhtiyar Khilji [UPPSC (Pre) 1991, BPSC (Pre) 2016]
- To whom did Muhammad Ghori grant the first Iqta in India? – Qutb-ud-din Aibak [BPSC (Pre) 1994]
- Coins of which Muslim ruler bear an image of Devi Lakshmi? – Muhammad Ghori [UKPSC (Pre) 2006]
UPSC NCERT Practice Questions
1. North Indian powers were defeated at the hands of invaders from Central Asia because MPSC (Pre) 2013
1. Indian soldiers could not hope to get plunder.
2. there was no unity among young Indian soldiers due to casteism.
3. Central Asian soldiers had more modern weapons.
4. the invading army was led by slaves.
Codes
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 4
(c) 3 and 4
(d) 1 and 3
2. Assertion (A) Turkish invasions on India were successful. Reason (R) There was no political unity in North UPPSC (Pre) 2018
Codes
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.
3. The first Muslim invaders of India were
(a) the Ghaznavids
(b) the Ghurids
(c) the Arabs
(d) None of these
4. Who among the following was the founder of the Ghaznavid Dynasty?
(a) Alaptigin
(b) Mahmud
(C) Sabuktigin
(d) Ismail
5. How many times did Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni invade India? WBCS (Pre) 2013
(a) 12
(b) 17
(c) 5
(d) 20
6. The writer of the book ‘Kitab-ul-Hind’ is RAS/RTS (Pre) 2010
(a) Hasan Nizami
(b) Minhaj-al-Siraj
(c) Al-Biruni
(d) Shams-i-Siraj Afif
7. Assertion (A) Mahmud Ghazni invaded India seventeen times.Reason (R) He wanted to establish a permanent Muslim empire in India.
Codes
(a) Boph a on of A. are true and R a tho come explanation of A.
(b) Explana ton R are true, but PR is not the come explanation of A.
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.
8. During the invasion of Mahmud Ghazni, which dynasty ruled the region which comprises Modern Haryana? HPSC (Pre) 2021
(a) Tomar Rajput
(b) Parmar Rajput
(c) Chauhan Rajput
(d) Kachhwaha Rajput
9. The famous historian who visited India with Mahmud Ghazni was IPSC (Pre) 2011
(a) Ferishta
(b) Al-Biruni
(c) Afif
(d) Ibn Battuta
10. When was the first Bate of Taran fouh?
(a) AD 1175
(b) AD 1191
(c) AD 1192
(d) AD 1206
11. The Second Battle of Lara was fought in the Nagaland PSC (Pre) 2015
(a) 1191
(b) 1192
(c) 1193
(d) 1194
12. Which one of the following rulers from Central Asia conquered North India in 1192? UPPSC (Pre) 1995, UPPSC (Mains) 2004
(a) Jalal-al-din Mangburni
(b) Mahmud of Ghazni
(c) Shahabuddin Muhammad Ghori
(d) Changez Khan
13. Which one of the following kings was defeated by Muhammad Ghori in the Battle of Chandawar? UP RO/ARO (Pre) 2016, MPPSC (Pre) 2017.
(a) Prithviraj Chauhan
(b) Jayachandra
(c) Kumarapala
(d) Bhima II
14. Which of the following slaves of Muhammad Ghori captured Bengal and Bihar? UPPSC (Pre) 1991, BPSC (Pre) 2016
(a) Qutb-ud-din Aibak
(c) Bakhtiyar Khilji
(b) Iltutmish
(d) Yaldoz
Know Right Answer
1 (a)
2 (a)
3 (c)
4 (c)
5 (b)
6 (c)
7 (c)
8 (a)
9 (b)
10 (b)
11 (b)
12 (c)
13(b)
14 (c)
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Q1: What were the major Arab and Turkish invasions in ancient Indian history?
A1: The major Arab invasions in ancient Indian history occurred during the 7th to 11th centuries, with notable invasions by Muhammad bin Qasim in 711 CE and Mahmud of Ghazni in the 11th century. The Turkish invasions, led by Mahmud of Ghazni and later by Mahmud of Ghori, also played a significant role in shaping the history of medieval India.
Q2: How did the Arab and Turkish invasions impact ancient Indian society and culture?
A2: The Arab and Turkish invasions had a profound impact on ancient Indian society and culture. They led to the spread of Islam in the Indian subcontinent, influencing the socio-religious fabric. The destruction of temples and the looting of wealth during these invasions also left a lasting impact on the architectural and cultural heritage of the region.
Q3: What role did Muhammad bin Qasim play in the Arab invasions of ancient India?
A3: Muhammad bin Qasim, a young Arab general, led the Arab invasion of Sindh in 711 CE. He successfully captured several regions and is known for introducing Islam to the Indian subcontinent. Muhammad bin Qasim’s conquests paved the way for further Islamic influence in the region.
Q4: Who were the prominent Turkish invaders in ancient Indian history, and what were their contributions?
A4: Prominent Turkish invaders in ancient Indian history include Mahmud of Ghazni and Mahmud of Ghori. Mahmud of Ghazni, known for his multiple invasions in the 11th century, raided numerous Indian cities and amassed wealth. Mahmud of Ghori’s victories laid the foundation for the Delhi Sultanate, marking a significant chapter in medieval Indian history.
Q5: How did the Arab and Turkish invasions impact the political landscape of ancient India?
A5: The Arab and Turkish invasions significantly altered the political landscape of ancient India. The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate by Turkish rulers marked the beginning of Muslim rule in India. The political structure changed, and the region experienced a fusion of cultural and administrative elements from both Islamic and indigenous traditions, shaping the course of medieval Indian history.
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