- The Khilafat movement and the Non-Cooperation movement were indeed significant mass movements that emerged in India between 1919 and 1922, both aimed at opposing British rule. Although they were initially formed to address separate issues, they adopted a unified plan of action based on nonviolence and non-cooperation.
- The Khilafat movement originated as a response to the British government’s policies towards the crumbling Ottoman Empire, particularly the issue of the caliphate. Indian Muslims, led by the Ali brothers, joined forces with Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress to demand the restoration of the caliphate and the protection of Muslim interests. The movement gained widespread support and triggered various protests and demonstrations across India.
- Simultaneously, the Non-Cooperation movement, initiated by Mahatma Gandhi, aimed to mobilize Indians to reject cooperation with the British authorities and institutions. It called for the boycott of British goods, withdrawal from government-run educational institutions, and non-participation in British law courts. The movement sought to demonstrate the power of mass nonviolent resistance and to weaken British control by disrupting colonial administration.
- During this period, the Indian National Congress and the All India Muslim League, representing Hindus and Muslims respectively, forged closer ties. The two parties recognized the importance of united action against British rule and collaborated on several political initiatives.
- The efforts of both the Congress and the Muslim League led to numerous political demonstrations, strikes, and protests across India. The movements garnered significant public support and participation, effectively challenging British authority and highlighting the collective aspirations for independence and self-governance.
Overall, the Khilafat movement and the Non-Cooperation movement represented a critical phase in India’s struggle for independence. They symbolized the unity of diverse religious and political groups and laid the groundwork for future mass movements that would ultimately contribute to the achievement of independence in 1947.
Khilafat Movement – Background
The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements emerged against the backdrop of growing resentment towards British rule in India. Several factors contributed to the formation of these movements:
- Injustice towards Turkey: During World War I, Turkey, as part of the Central Powers, fought against Britain. Following Turkey’s defeat, British policies towards the crumbling Ottoman Empire were seen as unjust, particularly regarding the issue of the caliphate. This injustice ignited a sense of solidarity among Indian Muslims, who felt the need to protect Muslim interests and the institution of the caliphate.
- Atrocities and Repression: The British government’s actions during and after the war further fueled discontent. The implementation of the Rowlatt Act, which curbed civil liberties, and the imposition of martial law in Punjab were seen as oppressive measures. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, where British troops fired upon unarmed Indian protesters, exposed the brutal and uncivilized face of foreign rule.
- Sham Investigations and Support for Atrocities: The Hunter Commission, appointed to investigate the atrocities in Punjab, was perceived as a mere cover-up. The House of Lords in the British Parliament supported General Dyer, the perpetrator of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. This lack of accountability and the British public’s solidarity with Dyer intensified Indian resentment towards colonial rule.
- Failure of Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms: The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, introduced through the Government of India Act (1919), aimed to address Indian demands for self-government. However, the ill-conceived dyarchy system, which divided power between British officials and Indian ministers, failed to satisfy the growing aspirations for genuine self-rule.
- Economic Hardship: The post-war years witnessed a deteriorating economic situation in India. Rising commodity prices, the declining output of Indian industries, increased burdens of taxes and rents, and overall economic hardship affected various segments of society. These conditions further fueled anti-British sentiments and discontent.
- In light of these factors, the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements emerged as mass movements to challenge British rule and address grievances related to Turkey, injustice, repression, failed reforms, and economic hardships. They represented a united front against foreign rule and marked a significant phase in India’s struggle for independence.
Khilafat Issue
The Khilafat issue was a significant factor in the emergence of the Khilafat Movement in India. Here are the key points related to the Khilafat issue:
- Spiritual Leader: Muslims in India and worldwide regarded the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, who held the title of Khalifa (Caliph), as their spiritual leader. The Khalifa was seen as the protector of Islamic interests and the symbol of Muslim unity.
- World War I and Ottoman Empire: During World War I, the Ottoman Empire, led by the Khalifa, aligned itself with Germany and Austria-Hungary against the British. Indian Muslims supported the British war effort with the understanding that the sacred sites of the Ottoman Empire, including those in Jerusalem and Mecca, would remain under the Khalifa’s control.
- Post-War Discontent: However, after the war, the Ottoman Empire was dismembered, and Turkey underwent significant territorial losses. The Khalifa was deposed, and the institution of the caliphate was abolished. This was seen as a betrayal of the Muslims’ trust and an insult to their religious sentiments.
- Formation of the Khilafat Movement: In response to these developments, the Khilafat Movement was founded by prominent Muslim leaders such as the Ali brothers (Shaukat Ali and Mohammad Ali), Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Ajmal Khan, and Hasrat Mohani. Their goal was to oppose British policies and pressure the British government to change its stance towards Turkey and the Khalifa.
- All India Khilafat Committee: In early 1919, the leaders formed the All India Khilafat Committee to coordinate the movement’s activities across India. The committee served as a platform for organizing protests, mobilizing public support, and strategizing for a nationwide uprising.
- Boycott of British Goods: As part of their protest against British policies, the Khilafat Movement issued a call to boycott British goods. This boycott aimed to exert economic pressure on the British government and demonstrate the collective strength of the movement.
- The Khilafat issue, along with the broader sentiment of Muslim unity and the protection of Islamic interests, played a crucial role in galvanizing Muslims in India and shaping the objectives of the Khilafat Movement from 1919 to 1924.
Development of Khilafat Non-Cooperation
Following initial efforts of meetings, petitions, and deputations by the Khilafat leaders in support of the Khilafat cause, the movement gradually evolved into a more militant and active agitation.
The development of the Khilafat movement’s alliance with the Non-Cooperation movement, spearheaded by Mahatma Gandhi, played a significant role in shaping its trajectory. Here are the key points regarding the development of Khilafat Non-Cooperation:
- Militant Agitation: As discontent grew over the British government’s policies towards Turkey and the Khalifa, some members of the Khilafat movement began advocating for more assertive actions. They called for the cessation of all cooperation with the British government as a means of exerting pressure and expressing their grievances.
- Boycott of British Goods: At the All India Khilafat Conference held in Delhi in November 1919, the leaders of the Khilafat movement issued a call for a boycott of British goods. This boycott was seen as a way to economically impact the British government and gain attention for their cause.
- Ceasing Cooperation: The Khilafat leaders made it clear that if the post-war peace terms were not favorable to Turkey, they would discontinue all cooperation with the British government. This threat aimed to compel the government to reconsider its stance and address the demands of the Khilafat movement.
- Gandhi’s Role: Mahatma Gandhi, who served as the president of the All India Khilafat Committee at the time, recognized the potential of the Khilafat issue as a platform for launching a mass and united non-cooperation movement against the government. He saw the alliance between the Khilafat movement and the Non-Cooperation movement as a means to achieve broader political objectives and mobilize the Indian masses against British rule.
- By aligning with the Khilafat movement’s demands and incorporating them into the Non-Cooperation movement, Gandhi aimed to forge a unified struggle against British rule, combining the aspirations of both the Hindus and Muslims. This alliance had a significant impact on shaping the course of the Indian independence movement and drawing widespread support from diverse segments of society.
Congress and Muslim League’s Stand on Khilafat Issue
The Congress and the Muslim League both played significant roles in the Khilafat issue and the broader Khilafat movement. Here are the key points regarding their stands on the Khilafat issue:
- Congress Support: The Congress, under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, recognized the importance of the Khilafat issue in mobilizing Muslims and creating unity between Hindus and Muslims in the struggle against British rule. Gandhi supported the principles of satyagraha (nonviolent resistance) and non-cooperation as a means to address the Khilafat issue.
- Divisions within Congress: However, there were divisions within Congress regarding the course of action to be taken on the Khilafat issue. Some members were hesitant about aligning with a religious cause and feared that it might divert attention from the broader struggle for Indian independence. These divisions led to debates and discussions within the Congress on the extent of support to be extended to the Khilafat movement.
- Increasing Muslim Participation: Eventually, Congress recognized that supporting the Khilafat movement presented an opportunity to bring Hindus and Muslims together and to increase Muslim participation in mass movements for independence. The Congress leadership believed that the Khilafat issue had the potential to unite different religious communities under a common cause, thereby strengthening the broader struggle against British rule.
- Muslim League Support: The Muslim League, an organization primarily focused on Muslim interests and representation, also decided to extend its full support to Congress and its political agitation on the Khilafat issue. The League recognized the significance of the Khilafat cause for the Muslim community and saw cooperation with Congress as a means to advance their goals.
- Both the Congress and the Muslim League understood the importance of unity and collaboration on the Khilafat issue, leading to their joint support and cooperation during this period. This alignment between the two organizations aimed to create a broad-based movement that could effectively challenge British policies and advance the demands of the Khilafat movement.
Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement
The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement, which emerged as a response to the grievances surrounding the Khilafat issue, gained momentum in early 1920. Here are the key developments of the movement:
- Unsuccessful Deputation: In an attempt to address their grievances, a joint Hindu-Muslim deputation was sent to the Viceroy in early 1920. However, the deputation did not achieve the desired outcomes, failing to secure redress on the Khilafat issue.
- Gandhi’s Declaration: In February 1920, Mahatma Gandhi declared that if the terms of the peace treaty related to the Khilafat issue did not satisfy Indian Muslims, he would soon lead a non-cooperation movement. This declaration highlighted the significance of the Khilafat issue in shaping the course of the movement.
- Treaty of Sevres: The Treaty of Sevres, signed in May 1920, resulted in the complete dismemberment of Turkey. This development further fueled the sentiments of discontent among Indian Muslims and added to the urgency of the movement.
- All-Party Conference and Boycott: An all-party conference held in Allahabad approved a boycott of schools, colleges, and law courts as a form of protest. Mahatma Gandhi was appointed to lead this non-cooperation movement, which encompassed the demands of both the Khilafat issue and other grievances.
- Launch of the Movement: With the endorsement of the Khilafat Committee, the non-cooperation campaign was formally launched, marking the beginning of a mass movement that aimed to exert pressure on the British government through civil disobedience and nonviolent resistance.
- The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement represented the collective efforts of various political and social groups to address the Khilafat issue and advocate for broader demands related to Indian independence. It demonstrated the power of unified Hindu-Muslim mobilization and the adoption of nonviolent means in challenging British rule in India.
Special Session in Calcutta
During a special session in Calcutta in September 1920, Congress approved a comprehensive non-cooperation program that aimed to address the issues of the Punjab and Khilafat and ultimately establish swaraj (self-rule). Lala Lajpat Rai presided over this session, which laid out the following key elements of the program:
- Boycott of Government Schools and Colleges: Participants were encouraged to boycott educational institutions under government control and promote alternative means of education, emphasizing the administration of justice through Panchayats (local self-governing bodies).
- Boycott of Law Courts: Instead of relying on the British-administered legal system, participants were urged to boycott law courts and seek justice through alternative methods.
- Boycott of Legislative Councils: Although there were some differences of opinion on this matter, the program included a call to boycott the British-controlled Legislative Councils. Some leaders, like C.R. Das, initially had reservations but ultimately agreed to comply with the discipline of Congress. Those who supported the boycott stayed away from the elections held in November 1920, and a majority of voters also abstained.
- Boycott of Foreign Cloth: Participants were encouraged to boycott foreign-made cloth and promote the use of khadi (homespun cloth) as a symbol of self-reliance and resistance against British economic dominance. Hand-spinning was also emphasized as a means of promoting self-sufficiency.
- Renunciation of Government Honours and Titles: Participants were called upon to renounce government honors and titles, rejecting symbols of British authority and recognition. As the movement progressed, mass civil disobedience was envisioned, which could include resignation from government service and the nonpayment of taxes.
- Additionally, participants were expected to work towards Hindu-Muslim unity and the abolition of untouchability. Nonviolence remained a central principle throughout the movement, emphasizing peaceful resistance as a means to achieve the movement’s objectives.
- This comprehensive program aimed to mobilize the masses and exert pressure on the British government through various forms of non-cooperation, while also addressing social and communal issues within Indian society.
Nagpur Session
The Nagpur Session of the Indian National Congress, held in December 1920, marked a significant turning point in the Congress’s approach to achieving self-government (swaraj). Here are the key outcomes of the Nagpur Session:
- Endorsement of the Non-Cooperation Programme: The session reaffirmed the Congress’s commitment to the non-cooperation movement, which included the boycott of government institutions, foreign goods, and British-controlled legislative bodies.
- Change in Congress Creed: The Nagpur Session brought about a crucial change in Congress’s ideology. Instead of seeking self-government through constitutional means and negotiations with the British, the Congress decided to adopt extra-constitutional mass struggle as the path to achieving swaraj. This shift reflected a more assertive and radical stance in the fight against British rule.
- Formation of Congress Working Committee (CWC): To provide cohesive and effective leadership to Congress, a Congress Working Committee consisting of 15 members was established. This committee would play a central role in guiding the Congress’s activities and decision-making process.
- Formation of Provincial Congress Committees: The session saw the creation of Provincial Congress Committees based on linguistic regions. This reorganization aimed to strengthen the Congress’s presence at the regional level and promote effective coordination in different parts of India.
- Formation of Ward Committees: Additionally, ward committees were established to mobilize support at the grassroots level, allowing greater participation of the common people in the movement.
- Reduced Entry Fee: To make Congress more inclusive and accessible to a broader section of society, the entry fee was reduced to four annas, making it easier for ordinary people to become members and actively participate in the political process.
- Gandhi’s Optimistic Declaration: During the Nagpur Session, Mahatma Gandhi expressed confidence that if the non-cooperation program was fully and effectively implemented, India could achieve swaraj within a year. This declaration instilled hope and determination among the Congress leaders and supporters.
- The Nagpur Session set the stage for a more assertive and united Congress that was determined to intensify the struggle for self-rule through peaceful and legitimate mass movements. The adoption of non-cooperation as a strategic approach aimed to mobilize the masses and exert maximum pressure on the British authorities to meet the demands of the Indian people.
Role of Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi played a pivotal role in both the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements, leaving a profound impact on India’s struggle for independence. Here are some key aspects of Gandhi’s involvement:
- Leadership and Ideology: Gandhi emerged as the supreme leader of the Indian national movement during this period. His philosophy of nonviolence (ahimsa) and non-cooperation became the guiding principles of the movements. Gandhi believed in the power of truth, nonviolent resistance, and moral courage as means to achieve political and social change.
- Unifying Hindu-Muslim Relations: Gandhi recognized the significance of Hindu-Muslim unity in the national movement. He actively supported the Khilafat cause and saw it as an opportunity to bridge the communal divide and foster a united front against British rule. His efforts aimed at promoting harmony and cooperation between Hindus and Muslims, emphasizing the shared struggle for justice and freedom.
- Mass Mobilization and Civil Disobedience: Gandhi, along with other leaders, embarked on extensive tours across the country, addressing public gatherings, organizing protests, and spreading the message of non-cooperation. He advocated for the boycott of British goods, institutions, and symbols of authority. Gandhi’s call for mass civil disobedience, including acts like non-payment of taxes and resignation from government positions, aimed to undermine British authority and demonstrate the power of the people’s collective action.
- Satyagraha: Gandhi popularized the concept of Satyagraha, a nonviolent form of resistance, as a means to challenge oppressive laws and policies. Satyagrahis were trained to peacefully confront injustice, endure suffering, and appeal to the conscience of their oppressors. Through Satyagraha, Gandhi sought to transform the individual and society, fostering self-discipline, self-reliance, and self-respect among Indians.
- Influence on Congress: Gandhi’s ideas and leadership deeply influenced the Indian National Congress. His principle of nonviolence gained traction within the party, leading to its adoption as a core principle. His emphasis on mass participation, grassroots organization, and unity helped shape Congress’s approach to the freedom struggle.
- Shift in Congress’s Strategy: Under Gandhi’s influence, Congress shifted from seeking limited reforms within the existing British framework to pursuing more radical and assertive methods. The Non-Cooperation Movement marked a departure from the previous approach of constitutional negotiations, and Gandhi’s call for swaraj through peaceful but determined mass struggle became a rallying cry for independence.
Overall, Mahatma Gandhi’s leadership, moral authority, and commitment to nonviolence were instrumental in shaping the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements, mobilizing the masses, and transforming India’s struggle against colonial rule into a mass movement with widespread public support.
Spread of the Movement
The spread of the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement led by Gandhi and supported by various leaders resulted in widespread participation and the emergence of numerous local struggles. Here are some key aspects of the movement’s spread:
- National Educational Institutions: As part of the non-cooperation movement, national schools and colleges were established to promote the boycott of government educational institutions. Around 90,000 students left government schools and colleges to join these new institutions, which were led by prominent leaders like Acharya Narendra Dev, C.R. Das, Lala Lajpat Rai, Zakir Hussain, and Subhash Bose.
- Participation of Lawyers: Many lawyers, including prominent figures like Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, C.R. Das, C. Raja Gopalachari, Vallabhbhai Patel, and Rajendra Prasad, actively participated in the movement, lending their support and legal expertise.
- Boycott of Foreign Goods: The movement advocated for the boycott of foreign cloth, which led to public burnings of foreign textiles and a significant reduction in imports. This boycott was seen as a symbolic rejection of British dominance and a way to promote the use of Indian-made khadi cloth.
- Picketing and Protests: Picketing was carried out in various locations, targeting shops selling foreign liquor and toddy shops. Strikes and protests were organized in tea plantations, steamer services, and railways, leading to disruptions and asserting the movement’s non-cooperation with British institutions.
- Tilak Swaraj Fund: The Tilak Swaraj Fund, established to support the movement’s activities, received overwhelming contributions, with a total collection of one crore rupees. This financial support helped sustain the movement’s initiatives and organizational efforts.
- Local Struggles and Movements: The spirit of defiance and unrest sparked several local movements and struggles across India. These included the Awadh Kisan Movement in Uttar Pradesh, the Eka Movement in Uttar Pradesh, the Mappila Revolt in Malabar (now Kerala), and the Sikh agitation for the removal of mahants (priestly figures) in Punjab. These movements highlighted the widespread discontent and resistance against British rule in different regions.
- Call for Resignation from the Army: The Ali brothers, along with Gandhi’s support, called for Muslims to resign from the army as a means of protesting against British policies. This led to their arrest and further fueled the spirit of resistance and civil disobedience.
Overall, the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement witnessed wide-scale participation of people from various backgrounds and regions of India. The movement’s call for boycotts, picketing, non-payment of taxes, and civil disobedience resonated with the masses, resulting in the emergence of numerous local struggles and protests against British rule.
Government Response
The government responded to the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement with a combination of attempts at negotiation and subsequent repressive measures. Here are some key aspects of the government’s response:
- Failed Negotiations: In May 1921, talks between Mahatma Gandhi and Viceroy Reading took place, but they broke down due to differences over the content of speeches made by the Ali brothers. The government wanted Gandhi to urge the Ali brothers to remove portions of their speeches that suggested violence. Gandhi, recognizing the government’s intention to divide him from the Khilafat leaders, refused to comply.
- Harsh Retaliation: In December, the government responded to the movement with a harsh crackdown. The volunteer corps, which played a significant role in organizing protests and maintaining discipline, were declared illegal. Public meetings were prohibited, curtailing the movement’s ability to gather and mobilize support. The press was also silenced, limiting the dissemination of information and ideas. Additionally, many leaders, excluding Gandhi, were arrested as a means of suppressing the movement.
- Repressive Measures: The government used various repressive measures to quell the movement. These included arrests, detentions, and charges against leaders and activists. By targeting leaders and restricting their activities, the government aimed to undermine the movement’s effectiveness and create a sense of fear and uncertainty among the participants.
- Despite the government’s efforts to suppress the movement, the spirit of resistance persisted, and the movement continued to have an impact on the Indian freedom struggle. The government’s response highlighted its determination to maintain control and prevent the growth of mass movements challenging British rule.
Chauri Chaura Incident
The Chauri Chaura incident, which occurred on February 5, 1922, had a significant impact on the course of the Non-Cooperation Movement and the Indian freedom struggle. Here are some key details about the incident and its consequences:
- Incident Details: At Chauri Chaura, in the Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh, a procession of Congress and Khilafat activists was confronted by the police who attempted to stop them. The activists became agitated and attacked the police. In response, the police opened fire, leading to further violence. The situation escalated when the enraged procession attacked and set fire to the police station, resulting in the death of all the police personnel inside.
- Gandhi’s Reaction: Mahatma Gandhi, shocked and deeply saddened by the incident, believed that the movement had lost its nonviolent character and spiraled into violence. He believed that such acts of violence were contrary to the principles of the movement and could not be justified. In response to the Chauri Chaura incident, Gandhi made the decision to withdraw from the Non-Cooperation Movement as a means of expressing his disapproval and to prevent further violence.
- Impact on the Movement: The Chauri Chaura incident marked a turning point in the Non-Cooperation Movement. Gandhi’s decision to withdraw from the movement had a demoralizing effect on the activists and supporters who had been involved in the mass civil disobedience campaign. The movement was suspended, and the planned civil disobedience in Bardoli was postponed. The incident also led to a period of introspection and reevaluation within the Indian National Congress and the freedom movement as a whole.
- Significance and Lessons Learned: The Chauri Chaura incident highlighted the importance of maintaining discipline and restraint in mass movements. Gandhi’s characterization of the incident as a “Himalayan Blunder” emphasized the need for adherence to nonviolence as a core principle of the freedom struggle. It served as a reminder that the struggle for independence required not just mass participation but also a commitment to nonviolent means.
- The Chauri Chaura incident had a profound impact on the trajectory of the Indian freedom struggle. It demonstrated the challenges and complexities involved in organizing and sustaining mass movements and underscored the importance of nonviolence as a guiding principle.
Evaluation of Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements
The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements had several significant outcomes and impacts on the Indian freedom struggle. Here is an evaluation of these movements:
- Mobilization and Inclusion: The movements successfully mobilized a diverse range of people, including urban Muslims, artisans, peasants, students, women, and traders. This widespread participation brought nationalist sentiments to every part of the country and expanded the reach of the national movement. It helped in politicizing various sections of society and bringing them into the fold of the struggle for independence.
- Revolutionary Flavour: The mass mobilization and politicization of millions of people gave the national movement a revolutionary character. It created a sense of unity and common purpose among the participants, fostering a collective spirit of resistance against colonial rule. The movements challenged the existing power structures and advocated for radical change in the socio-political landscape.
- Debunking Colonial Myths: The movements played a crucial role in debunking two key myths propagated by colonial rule. The first myth, that British rule was in the best interests of Indians, was challenged through the economic critique put forth by moderate nationalists. The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements further exposed the exploitative nature of the colonial rule, thereby discrediting the notion that it was beneficial for the Indian population. The second myth, that British rule was unbreakable, was challenged through the mass struggle of Satyagraha, which demonstrated the power of nonviolent resistance in confronting and resisting colonial authority.
- Weakening of Fear: The participation of the masses in the movements played a significant role in diminishing the fear that had been ingrained in the Indian population regarding colonial rule. The demonstrations of unity, nonviolent resistance, and collective action instilled a sense of confidence and defiance among the people, eroding their fear of the powerful repressive machinery of colonial rule.
Overall, the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements radically impacted the Indian freedom struggle. They mobilized and included various sections of society, challenged colonial myths, and instilled a sense of confidence and resistance among the masses. These movements laid the foundation for future struggles and became a significant chapter in India’s journey towards independence.
Impact of Non-Cooperation Movement
The Non-Cooperation Movement had significant impacts on both the Indian nationalist movement and the British authorities. Here are some of the key impacts:
- Encouragement and Unity: The Non-Cooperation Movement came as a surprise to the British authorities and provided immense encouragement to millions of Indian nationalists. The country’s unity was strengthened as people from various backgrounds, including Hindus and Muslims, participated in the movement, highlighting the communal harmony of the nation.
- Mass Movement and Political Awareness: The Non-Cooperation Movement was a truly mass movement, with lakhs (hundreds of thousands) of Indians openly protesting the government through peaceful means. This widespread participation increased political awareness among the people, making them more conscious of their political rights and less fearful of the government. The movement helped to establish the popularity of the Indian National Congress as a political force representing the aspirations of the people.
- Economic Impact: The boycott of British goods led to a significant decline in imports from the United Kingdom, particularly in sectors such as sugar. Indian merchants and mill owners benefited financially during this time, as the boycott created a demand for Indian-made goods, particularly Khadi (hand-spun and handwoven cloth promoted by Gandhi).
- Gandhiji’s Populist Leadership: The Non-Cooperation Movement played a crucial role in establishing Mahatma Gandhi as a populist leader. His ideology of nonviolence and non-cooperation resonated with the masses, and his leadership during the movement solidified his position as a prominent figure in the Indian nationalist movement.
Overall, the Non-Cooperation Movement had far-reaching consequences, both in terms of the political awakening of the masses and the economic impact on British imports. It bolstered nationalist sentiments, highlighted the unity of the Indian people, and established Gandhi’s leadership in the struggle for independence.
Why did Gandhi Withdraw from the Movement?
Gandhi decided to withdraw from the Non-Cooperation Movement for several reasons:
- Fear of Violence: Gandhi believed that the movement had not fully imbibed the principles of nonviolence. The Chauri-Chaura incident, in which a police station was set on fire and its occupants were killed, deeply troubled Gandhi. He felt that such incidents could lead to a violent turn in the movement, which would play into the hands of the colonial authorities. Gandhi believed that a violent movement would be easily suppressed by the British, who could use it as a pretext to use their armed forces against the protestors.
- Signs of Wear and Tear: The Non-Cooperation Movement had been sustained at a high pitch for a considerable period of time, and signs of fatigue were starting to show. Sustaining such a mass movement requires immense energy, resources, and discipline, and Gandhi observed that the movement was losing steam. The government showed little interest in negotiating or addressing the demands, making it difficult to maintain momentum.
- Changing Relevance of Khilafat Issue: The Khilafat issue, which had served as a unifying factor during the early stages of the movement, began to lose its relevance. In Turkey, the people had risen up under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, and the Sultan’s political power was overthrown. Turkey underwent significant modernization, establishing a secular state, introducing a European-style legal system, granting extensive rights to women, nationalizing education, and promoting agriculture and industry. As a result, the Khilafat issue lost its significance, as the caliphate was abolished in 1924.
- Considering these factors, Gandhi made the decision to withdraw from the Non-Cooperation Movement, as he believed it was crucial to maintain the principles of nonviolence and avoid a violent outcome. He also recognized the need to reassess the movement’s objectives and strategies in light of changing circumstances.
Conclusion
- The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements had a significant impact on India’s struggle for independence. They mobilized millions of Indians across different sections of society, creating a sense of unity and nationalist fervor. The movements brought Hindus and Muslims together for a common cause, demonstrating communal harmony.
- However, there were challenges and setbacks along the way. The movements faced criticism and divisions within the Indian National Congress and other political groups. Communal tensions resurfaced, leading to the resurgence of the Muslim League and the Hindu Mahasabha, which undermined the idea of a unified Indian identity.
- The aftermath of the movements also witnessed the fragmentation of political parties and the emergence of different factions with varying approaches to the struggle for independence. Some nationalist leaders, driven by communal considerations, deviated from the path of unity and cooperation.
- Gandhi’s efforts to address communal harmony through his fast in 1924 were met with limited success. The inhumanity revealed in communal riots persisted, and the challenges of communalism continued to cast a shadow over the national movement.
Overall, while the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements achieved significant mobilization and raised nationalist sentiments, they also faced internal divisions and challenges that hindered the realization of their objectives. Nonetheless, these movements played a crucial role in shaping the course of India’s independence struggle and laying the foundation for future movements and campaigns.
Non-Cooperation & Khilafat Movement in India
- The Non-Cooperation Movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi on August 1, 1920, was the first mass movement organized nationwide during India’s struggle for freedom. In this article, we will read in detail about the Non-Cooperation Movement’s causes, methods, impact, and end.
Causes of Non-Cooperation Movement
The Non-Cooperation Movement has had four main causes:
- Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and Resultant Punjab Disturbances
- Dissatisfaction with Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms
- Rowlatt Act
- Khilafat Agitation
Let’s look in detail at every cause of the Non -Cooperation Movement.
1. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and Resultant Punjab Disturbances
- On April 13, 1919, a large but unarmed crowd gathered at Amritsar in the Jallianwala Bagh to protest the arrest of their popular leaders, Dr Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr Satyapal. However, this unarmed crowd of women and children, among others, was fired mercilessly with rifles and machine guns on General Dyer’s orders. Thousands of people have been killed and injured. Martial law was proclaimed throughout Punjab after this massacre and the people were subjected to the most uncivilized atrocities.
- To investigate the Jallianwala Bagh incident and the role of General Dyer, the British government set up the Inquiry Disorders Committee, popularly known as the Hunter Committee after its chairman Lord William Hunter. While the Hunter Committee held General Dyer responsible for the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, it upheld his reasons for ordering the firing on the unarmed crowd as well as for imposing martial law in Punjab.
- The people of India, due to their clear biases, did not accept the recommendations of the Hunter Committee. There has been unrest among the masses to ensure justice for the wrongs of Punjab has been delivered. In protest, Mahatma Gandhi gave up the Kaiser – I – Hind title granted to him by the British government.
2. Unhappiness with the reforms in Montagu – Chelmsford
- The 1919 Government of India Act was eKaiser-I-Hindhe 1918 Montagu – Chelmsford proposals recommendations. This Act introduced the ‘ Dyarchy ‘ system and divided topics into lists – Reserved and Transferred. The Legislative Assembly (lower house) was introduced with direct elections, but the right to vote was severely curtailed. In addition, there was no control over the Governor General and his Executive Council by the Legislative Assembly.
- Indian nationalists, however, had gone far beyond such stopping concessions. The Indian National Congress met under Hasan Imam’s presidency at a special session in Bombay in August 1918 and condemned the reforms of Montagu – Chelmsford and instead called for effective self-government.
3. Rowlatt Act
- The government enacted the 1919 Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, poMontagu-Chelmsfordowlatt Act, based on the findings of the Rowlatt Committee. This act allowed the government to imprison any person suspected of terrorism for a maximum period of two years without trial. The government passed the Montagu Chelmsford Reforms and the Rowlatt Act in succession, which were part of the British Carrot and Stick policy. This action gave the movement a new direction. At all levels of India, Gandhi organized mass protests.
4. Khilafat Movement
- The Khilafat Movement, which began in 1919, brought the Muslims and the Hindus on a common platform against British rule and was the most important cause of the Non – Cooperation Movement.
Khilafat Movement in India
- Turkey had aligned itself in the First World War with Germany – led Axis powers that were defeated by Great BritNon-Cooperationllied powers. The politically – conscious Muslims were critical of the British and their allGermany-ledt of the Turkish (Ottoman) Empire that had divided it and properly removed Thrace from Turkey.
- The Muslims also regarded the Sultan of Turkey as the Caliph or the religious head of the Muslims and they strongly felt that his position over the Muslim religious places should not be undermined.
- Under the leadership of the Ali Brothers (Maulana Mohammed Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali), Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, and Hasrat Mohani, and countrywide Khilafat agitation, a Khilafat Committee was soon formed. The All – India Khilafat Conference held in November 1919 in Delhi decided to withdraw all government cooperation if the government did not meet its demands.
- MahatmaAll-India the Khilafat agitation as “an opportunity not to unite Hindus and Muslims in a hundred years.”Also, the Muslim League gave full support to the National Congress and its political agitation.
- In early 1920, Gandhi declared that the Khilafat question overshadowed the constitutional reforms and the Jallianwala massacre and announced that he would lead a non – cooperation movement if the terms of peace with Turkey did not satisfy the Indian Muslims.
Who were the Leaders of the Khilafat Movement?
The Ali Brothers (Maulanon-cooperation Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali), Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, and Hasrat Mohani were the leaders of the Khilafat Movement. Mahatma Gandhi later also became one of the leaders of the Khilafat Movement in India by strongly advocating the Khilafat cause.
The launch of the Non-Cooperation Movement
The above-mentioned causes resulted in unrest among the masses anxious to take political action against the British government. The only added fuel to the fire was the economic hardship suffered by ordinary Indians. On August 1, 1920, the Non – Cooperation Movement was officially launched.
Congress Nagpur session in December 1920 defined the Non – Cooperation program clearly in detail. Following changesNon-Cooperationian National Congress Constitution at the December 1920 Nagpur Session:
- The Congress goal has Non-Cooperationd from achieving self-government through constitutional and legal means to achieving Swaraj through peaceful and legitimate means.
- The Congress now had to have a 15-member Working Committee to look after its daily affairs.
- Linguistically, Provincial Congress Committees were to be organized now.
- The membership fee was reduced to 4 years per year to make it possible for the poor to join.
- Congress was to use Hindi as far as possible.
The Non – cooperation movement method and spread
- Together with the Ali brothers, Mahatma Gandhi undertook a nationwide tour of numerous student and political worker rallies and meetings. This led to thousands of students leaving schools and colleges to join over 800 national schools and colleges throughout the country.
- The educational boycott in Bengal was especially successful. C.R Das played an important role in promoting the movement and Subhash Bose became the head of the Calcutta National Congress. The educational boycott was also very successful in Punjab, and Lala Lajpat Rai played the leading role here.
- The other successful boycott observed was lawyers such as C.R Das, Motilal Nehru, M.R Jaykar, Saifuddin Kitchlew, and others boycotting the law courts.
- However, the Non – Cooperation Movement’s most successful item was the foreign cloth boycott. A major form of the boycott was also the picketing of shops selling foreign cloth. LiqNon-Cooperationere also picketing.
- Gandhi and Congress put a lot of stress on handspun Khadi in support of domestic textiles. Charkhas were widely popularized and khadi became the national movement’s uniform.
- In July 1921, at the All India Khilafat Conference in Karachi, Mohammed Ali declared that continuing in the British Army was ‘ religiously unlawful for the Muslims. Gandhi repeated Mohammed Ali’s exhortation, adding that every civilian and army member should sever links with the repressive British government.
- A movement against Union board taxes has been launched in the Midnapore district of Bengal. No-tax movements were also organized in the Andhra district of Guntur in Chirala-Pirala and Pedanandipadu taluka.
- In the U.P, where a powerful Kisan Sabha movement was underway, Jawaharlal Nehru led the non – cooperation movement among others.
- The Non – Cooperation and Khilafat propaganda in the Malabar region of Kerala helped to arouse Muslim tenants, called the Moplnon-cooperationt their renters, but the movnon-cooperationook on a common colour.
- In Assam, tea plantation laborers went on strike. While Andhra became popular with defiance of forest laws.
- The Akali movement took place in Punjab as part of the Non – Cooperation Movement to wrest control of the gurudwaras from the corrupt mahants (priests)
End of the Non-Cooperation Movement
- While in 1921 the Non – CooperatioNon-Cooperationwas in full steam, the masses were awakened from their slumber, and the grassroots workers of Congress, as well as the leadership were asking Mahatma Gandhi to launch the next phase of mass civil disobedience.
- Gandhi announced that massive civil disobedience would begin in the Bardoli Taluka district of Surat and that all other parts of the country should cooperate by maintaining total discipline and silence to concentrate the entire attention of the movement on Bardoli.
However, the Chauri Chaura incident occurred before mass civil disobedience could be launched.
Chauri Chaura Incident
- A Congress-Khilafat procession took place at Chauri Chaura in the U.P. district of Gorakhpur on February 5, 1922. Irritated by some policemen’s behavior, they were attacked by a crowd section. The police opened fire on the unarmed procession in retaliation. Instigated by this, the whole procession attacked the police and the mob set fire to the building when the police hid inside the police station. The cops who were trying to escape were hacked into pieces and thrown into the fire. In the Chauri Chaura incident, 22 police officers were killed.
- Gandhi was profoundly disturbed by the Chauri Chaura incident news. Gandhi decided to withdraw the movement because it violated the strict condition of non-violence that he had set for the launch of the civil disobedience phase and the continuation of the non – cooperation movement. Thus, the Non – Cooperation Movement came to an end on February 12, 1922.
Impact of the Non-Cooperation Movement
Despite the failure of thenon-cooperationeration Movement to achieveNon-Cooperationy goal of Swaraj, it has succeeded on many other counts highlighted below:
- The National Congress has shown that it represents the country’s majority opinion. It can not be charged with representing a ‘ microscopic minority ‘ anymore.’
- The movement’s geographical spread was also nationwide. While some areas were more active than others, few areas, if any, remained entirely passive to the call for non – cooperation.
- The Non – Cooperation Movement was the masses ‘ first opportunity to participate in politics and combat injustice and economic hardship caused by years of foreign rule.
- NoNon-Cooperationng the incidents of Malabar, which were not seen later during the Civil Disobedience Movement, there was considerable involvement of Muslims in the movement and the maintenance of communal harmony.
Some Important Events
- The Treaty of Sevres with Turkey was signed in May 1920 which completely dismembered Turkey.
- In June 1920, an all-party conference at Allahabad approved a program of a boycott of schools, colleges, and law courts, and asked Mahatma Gandhi to lead it.
- On August 31, 1920, the Khilafat Committee started a campaign of non-cooperation, and the movement was formally launched.
- In September 1920, at a special session in Calcutta, Congress approved a non-cooperation program till the Punjab and Khilafat wrongs were removed and swaraj was established.
- In December 1920, at the Nagpur session of the Indian National Congress; the program of non-cooperation was endorsed.
- Some important organizational changes were made: a Congress Working Committee (CWC) of 15 members was set up to lead the Congress from now onwards.
FAQs
Q. What is the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement?
Ans. The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement was a significant socio-political campaign in India during the early 20th century. It was a protest against British colonial rule and in support of the Khilafat movement, which aimed to protect the Ottoman Caliphate.
Q. When did the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement start?
Ans. The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement officially began in January 1921 when Mahatma Gandhi and the leaders of the Khilafat movement joined forces to launch a unified campaign.
Q. What was the main objective of the Khilafat Movement?
Ans. The Khilafat Movement aimed to support and safeguard the position of the Ottoman Caliphate, the spiritual leader of Muslims worldwide, which was under threat after World War I.
Q. What was the primary goal of the Non-Cooperation Movement?
Ans. The Non-Cooperation Movement was a broader civil disobedience campaign against British rule in India. Its primary goal was to compel the British to grant India self-governance and full independence.
Q. How did the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement impact India’s struggle for independence?
Ans. These movements played a significant role in the Indian independence movement by uniting Hindus and Muslims against British rule. They demonstrated the power of non-violent civil disobedience as a means of achieving political goals.
Q. What were the major events and outcomes of the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement?
Ans. The movements involved mass protests, boycotts of British institutions and goods, and non-cooperation with the colonial authorities. Despite some successes, like the suspension of the non-cooperation movement in 1922 after a violent incident, it ultimately paved the way for future civil disobedience and freedom movements in India.
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