The Delhi Sultanate consisted of five short-lived dynasty kingdoms or Sultanates based in Delhi. These dynasties were the Mamluk Dynasty, Khilji Dynasty, Tughlaq Dynasty, Sayyid Dynasty, and Lodi Dynasty.
Foundation of the Delhi Sultanate
- Towards the close of the 12th century, Muhammad Ghori successfully seized control of Delhi, initiating a line of rulers that, alongside subsequent dynasties, collectively formed the Delhi Sultanate.
- Ghori’s unexpected demise in 1206 triggered a power struggle among his three Generals – Qutb-ud-din Aibak (the Commander of his army), Tajuddin Yalduz (who governed the region between Afghanistan and Sindh), and Nasir-ad-din Qabacha (ruler of Uch).
- Aibak, positioned in Lahore at the time of Ghori’s death, was acknowledged as an independent king and conferred the title of Sultan of Delhi by Ghiyas-ud-din Mahmud, Ghori’s successor.
| The assumption of sovereign authority by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in 1206 marked the establishment of the Sultanate of Delhi and the inception of its inaugural ruling dynasty. |
- The subsequent dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate include:
- Mamluk or Slave Dynasty (AD 1206-1290)
- Khilji Dynasty (AD 1290-1320)
- Tughlaq Dynasty (AD 1320-1414)
- Sayyid Dynasty (AD 1414-1451)
- Lodi Dynasty (AD 1451-1526)
The Mamluk Dynasty, also known as the Slave Dynasty or Ilbari Dynasty (AD 1206-1290)
- Historians have designated the initial ruling dynasty of the Sultanate by various names, including the Slave Dynasty, the Mamluk Dynasty, or the Ilbari Dynasty.
- All rulers of this dynasty, with the exception of Qutb-ud-din, hailed from the Ilbari tribe of Turks.
This period witnessed the establishment of three major sub-dynasties:
- Qutbi Dynasty (AD 1206-1211), was founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak.
- First Ilbari Dynasty (AD 1211-1266), was founded by Iltutmish.
- The second Ilbari Dynasty (AD 1266-1290), was founded by Balban.
Qutb-ud-din Aibak (AD 1206-1210)
- Following the demise of Muhammad Ghori, numerous contenders vied for the throne, among whom Qutb-ud-din Aibak emerged as the ruler, initiating the rule of the Slave Dynasty.
- In 1192, after the Battle of Tarain, Muhammad Ghori appointed Aibak to oversee his Indian territories. Aibak, through the capture and raiding of numerous locations in the Chahamana, Gahadavala, Chalukya, Chandella, and other kingdoms, expanded Ghurid supremacy in Northern India.
| Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the first Muslim king in India and the founder of the Slave Dynasty, assumed the title of Sultan and established Lahore as his capital. Known for his generosity, he earned the epithet “Lakh Bakhsh” (giver of Lakhs). Aibak was a significant patron of learning and supported writers such as Hasan-un-Nizami and Fakhruddin. |
- Hasan Nizami’s work, “Tazul Maasir,” primarily focuses on Aibak.
- Aibak initiated the construction of Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Delhi, Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra (a mosque in Ajmer), and the Qutub Minar, a 238-feet stone tower in Delhi, erected in memory of Khwaja Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki, a Muslim saint.
| The completion of Qutub Minar was carried out by his successor, Iltutmish. |
- The destruction of numerous Hindu temples occurred during this period. In AD 1210, while engaged in a game of Chaugan (Polo) in Lahore, Qutb-ud-din Aibak fell off his horse and succumbed to his injuries.
- Upon Aibak’s sudden demise, the Turkish nobility (Maliks and Amirs) selected Aram Shah as the designated successor to maintain stability within the empire. However, the Turkish nobility disapproved of Aram Shah’s accession and instead advocated for Iltutmish to ascend the throne.
Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (AD 1211-1236)
- Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (AD 1211-1236) is recognized as the true consolidator of Turkish rule in India, belonging to the Ilbari Tribe. He was Aibak’s son-in-law and, as the Iqtadar of Gwalior, he dethroned Aram Shah in AD 1211, assuming the title of Shams-ud-din. Iltutmish relocated the capital from Lahore to Delhi.
- Iltutmish’s reign witnessed significant conquests, including the capture of Bihar in 1211, with Malik Jani appointed as the first subedar of Bihar. Subsequently, he seized Bengal in 1225 and, between AD 1226 and 1234, conquered territories such as Ranthambore, Mandawar, Bayana, Jalor, Gwalior, Malwa, Bhilsa, Ujjain, and Bengal.
- In the Battle of Tarain (1217), Iltutmish defeated Yalduz, leading to Yalduz’s demise. Additionally, Iltutmish engaged in conflicts with Nasir-ad-din Qabacha, a Ghurid slave, for control of Lahore. In AD 1228, he marched against Qabacha, ultimately putting him to death.
- A noteworthy event during Iltutmish’s reign was the arrival of the Mongols at the frontiers of India.
| In AD 1221, Changez Khan, a formidable conqueror, pursued Jalal-ad-din, King of Khwarizm or Khiva, reaching the Indus. Iltutmish played a crucial role by refusing shelter to Jalal-ad-din, thus safeguarding the sultanate. |
- He was the architect of the nation’s capital, the establishment of a sovereign state, the introduction of a monarchical form of government, and the formation of a governing class or nobility known as Turkan-i-Chahalgani or Chalisa (a group of forty), which served as the ruling elite during that era.
| Turkan-i-ChahalganiTurkan-i-Chahalgani was a council consisting of 40 Turkish and non-Turkish slaves entrusted with administering the Delhi Sultanate by Iltutmish’s directives. This marked the inception of the first regular ministerial body in the history of the Indian subcontinent. |
- In AD 1231, Iltutmish reoccupied Kannauj and Benaras. In 1234-35, he raided Bhilsa and Ujjain, leading to the destruction of the Mahakal Deva Temple.
- In February 1229, Iltutmish received a letter from the Caliph in Baghdad, conferring upon him the titles of Sultan of Hindustan and Deputy of the Faithful Leader (Nasir Amir ul Momin). He expanded his empire by annexing Malwa and Ujjain in AD 1239.
| Iqta SystemTo ensure effective governance, Iltutmish implemented the Iqta System, assigning land or land revenue under certain conditions to individuals, soldiers, officers, and nobles. Initially salary-based, the Iqta system later became hereditary under Firoz Shah Tughlaq. |
- Iltutmish facilitated trade and commerce by issuing silver (tanka) and copper (vital) coins, the first purely Arabic coins from Delhi. He supported Minhaj-us-Siraj, the author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, and constructed the Gandhak-i-Baoli, a stepwell for Sufi saint Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki.
- Implementing measures for grievance redressal, Iltutmish appointed Qazis to dispense justice. He passed away in 1236 due to illness and was laid to rest in the Qutub Complex in Mehrauli.
Mongol Incursion
- In AD 1220, led by Changez Khan, the Mongols reached the borders of India and invaded Ugain, destroying the Mahakal Temple.
- Iltutmish faced the threat of Mongol invasion during his reign. Employing diplomatic measures, he skillfully averted the peril of Mongol devastation in India.
- Changez Khan, in pursuit of Jalaluddin Mangbarani, approached the Indus Valley. Seeking assistance against the Mongols, Mangbarani sent a messenger to Iltutmish.
| However, Iltutmish, refusing compliance, not only assassinated the messenger but also diplomatically conveyed that the climate in India would be unsuitable for Mangbarani, thereby escaping the wrath of Changez Khan. |
Razia Sultana (AD 1236-1240)
- Iltutmish designated his daughter Razia as his successor, making her the first female Sultan of India.
- Initially perceived by Turkish nobles as a puppet they could manipulate, Razia faced a challenge when, after Iltutmish’s death, her step-brother Ruknuddin Firoz Shah ascended the throne.
- In 1236, Razia seized the throne by inciting the populace to revolt against Shah Turkan. She appointed non-Turkish nobles to key positions, triggering a power struggle between the monarchy and Turkish nobles known as the Chahalgani.
| Razia entrusted significant administrative roles to Yakuth, an Abyssinian (Ethiopian) slave, who also served as a General in the military. Razia discarded purdah, dressed in male attire during court sessions, and personally led the army. She successfully defeated the opposing Wazir, Nizam-ul-Mulk Junaidi, and conquered Ranthambore. |
- The Turkish nobility protested, accusing Razia of disregarding feminine modesty. To quell the revolt, Razia went to Lahore, and on her return journey, Yakuth was assassinated.
- During this time, facing opposition and being taken captive to secure support against the Chahalgani uprising, Razia, in a bid to quell the rebellion, agreed to marry Bahram. Unfortunately, on 13th October AD 1240, she suffered defeat at the hands of Bahram and, along with her husband, met her demise near Kaithal. Following Razia, two successive rulers ascended the throne – her brother Bahram and her nephew Ala-ud-din Masud, both subsequently deposed due to incompetence. Subsequently, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud assumed the throne.
Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (AD 1246-1265)
- Balban, a prominent member of Iltutmish’s Chahalgani, supported his son-in-law and Iltutmish’s eldest, seizing control of the kingdom in 1246.
- Nasir-ud-din, known for his gentleness, studious nature, and piety, earned the moniker “Darvesh King” due to his simple habits.
- In the ongoing struggle between the monarchy and Chahalgani, Turkish chief Balban emerged as the de facto ruler, appointed as Naib-1-Mamlakat (Vice-Regent), and conferred the title of Ulugh Khan. After Nasir-ud-din Mahmud’s death in 1265, Balban ascended the throne.
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (AD 1265-1286)
- Balban, an Ilbari-Turk originally named Bahauddin and a former slave of Iltutmish, gradually ascended to the Sultan’s throne.
- Recognizing the Fourty, a group of nobility, as a significant threat to the monarchy (Chahalgani), Balban devised a new theory of kingship.
- He projected monarchy as a semi-divine institution and declared himself the successor of Afrasiyab, an Iranian warrior, aiming to strengthen the authority of the monarchy to overcome prevailing challenges.
- He asserted that kingship represented the regency of God on Earth and assumed the title Jil-i-Ilahi, signifying the shadow of God on Earth.
- In his court, he introduced formalities like Sijda (prostration) and Paibos (kissing of feet), along with celebrating the Nauroz festival. To oversee court proceedings, an official Amir-e-Hajib was appointed.
- Facing a deteriorating law and order situation around Delhi, marked by plundering activities of Mewati Rajputs causing insecurity in the doab, Balban implemented a policy of blood and iron to combat these challenges.
- Notably, he suppressed the Bengal Revolt and administered justice impartially while excluding non-Turks from the administration.
- Balban confronted various challenges, including bandit activities in the Ganga-Yamuna doab, Rajput zamindars resisting government authority by setting up forts, and frequent raids by Mewatis on Delhi. Balban decisively handled these challenges by destroying Rajput strongholds and quelling Mewati threats, stationing Afghan soldiers in the doab for safeguarding.
| Playing a crucial role in halting Mongol invasions, Balban recovered Multan and strategically withdrew the Delhi Sultanate’s frontiers from the River Jhelum to the Beas, facing persistent Mongol pressure. |
- He reorganized the Central Military Department Diwan-i-Arz to fortify the monarchy, establishing a separate Military Department known as Diwan-i-Wizarat. Additionally, he organized an espionage department under Barid-1-Mumalik to monitor noble activities.
- The renowned Hindi and Persian poet Amir Khusrau (AD 1235-1325), known as the Parrot, lived during this period.
Campaign Against Tughril Khan
- Balban appointed Tughril Khan, a former slave, as the Governor of Bengal. Driven by Mongol threats and the aging Sultan, Tughril Khan rebelled against Balban’s authority.
- Despite sending Amin Khan, the Governor of Oudh, to quell the uprising, Balban’s initial attempt proved unsuccessful. Subsequent missions met the same fate, prompting Balban to personally lead an expedition towards Bengal.
- Upon hearing of Balban’s approach, Tughril Khan fled. Balban pursued him, tracking him from Lakhnauti to Tripura, where Tughril Khan was captured and beheaded. Balban appointed his son, Bughra Khan, as the new Governor of Bengal.
End of the Slave Dynasty
- Ghiyas-ud-din Balban reigned as the Sultan until his death in AD 1287. While Balban’s older son, Prince Muhammad Khan, perished in battle against the Mongols in AD 1285, his other son, Bughra Khan, declined the throne, opting to rule Bengal.
- Balban selected his grandson, Kaikhasrau (son of Prince Muhammad), as the heir apparent. However, following Balban’s demise, his nobles nominated Qaiqubad as Sultan.
- Qaiqubad’s reign proved weak and incompetent, succumbing to a stroke. His rule passed on to his three-year-old son, Shams-ud-din Kayumars. Eventually, Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji, acting as guardian, dethroned Shams-ud-din Kayumars in AD 1290, marking the end of the Slave Dynasty.
Major Rulers of the Slave Dynasty and Their Reign
| Reign | Slave Sultans |
| AD 1206-1210 | Qutb-ud-din Albak |
| AD 1210-1211 | Aram Shah |
| AD 1211-1236 | Shams-ud-din Iltutmish |
| AD 1236 | Ruknuddin Firoz |
| AD 1236-1240 | Razia Sultana |
| AD 1240-1242 | Baharam Shah |
| AD 1242-1246 | Ala-ud-din Masud |
| AD 1246-1265 | Nasiruddin Mahmud |
| AD 1265-1287 | Ghiyas-ud-din Balban |
| AD 1287-1290 | Qalqubad |
| AD 1290 | Shams-ud-din Kayumars |
Khilji Dynasty (AD 1290-1320)
Following the conclusion of the Slave Dynasty’s rule, the Khilji Dynasty emerged as the second ruling dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, holding power from AD 1290 to 1320. Originating as vassals of the Mamluk Dynasty of Delhi, the Khiljis were Turko-Afghans who initially arrived from Afghanistan alongside Muhammad Ghori.
| Jalal-ud-din Khilji (AD 1290-1296) established the Khilji Dynasty. During this era, Afghans began to share authority with Turkish nobles, marking a departure from the previous exclusive Turkish control. The Khiljis effectively thwarted Mongol incursions into India. |
Jalal-ud-din Khilji (AD 1290-1296)
- Jalal-ud-din Khilji successfully overcame opposition from Turkish nobles, ascending to the throne of Delhi in AD 1290, with Kilokhari serving as his capital. Notably, he defeated the Mongols in a significant battle near Tabarhind, Sunam.
- Around 4000 Mongols embraced Islam and settled in the vicinity of Delhi. Jalal-ud-din captured Ranthambore and Ujjain, where he desecrated the idol in the main temple. An impactful event during his reign was the invasion of Devagiri, the capital of Yadava king Raja Ramachandradeva. His rule came to an end when he was assassinated by his son-in-law, Alauddin Khilji, in AD 1296.
Alauddin Khilji (AD 1296-1316)
- Alauddin Khilji (AD 1296-1316) emerged as the most influential ruler of the Khilji Dynasty, becoming the first Muslim ruler to extend his empire to the southernmost regions of India.
- Unlike his predecessors, Alauddin did not seek a Manshur (Letter of Investiture) from the Caliph, instead referring to himself as the Deputy of the Caliph.
- Renowned for his administrative and military reforms, Alauddin ruled with imperialistic aspirations, earning the title Sikander-e-Sani in his pursuit of conquering the entire world.
- His accomplishments included defeating Waghela Karnadeva of Gujarat and marrying his widow, Kamaladevi. Malik Kafur, originally a eunuch, rose to become the Chief Commander of Khilji, erecting a victory pillar in Rameswaram.
| Alauddin appointed him as Amir-i-Tuzuk (Master of Ceremonies) and Ariz-i-Mamalik (Minister of War), reviving the ruthless governance policies initiated by Balban. |
Attack of Mongols During Alauddin’s Reign
| Years | Mongol Leaders | Sultana Commanders | Battlefields |
| AD 1297-98 | Dawa Khan | Ulugh Khan | Jalandhar |
| AD 1299 | Saldi | Zafar Khan | Siwistan in lower Sindh |
| AD 1299 | Qutlugh Khan | Zafar Khan (died in battle) | Killi (near Delhi) |
| AD 1303 | Targhi Begh | Alauddin Khilji | Doab Area (Delhi) |
Conquests of Alauddin Khillji
| Native King | States | Sultanate’s Commanders(s) | Consequences |
| Rai Karan (Solankis) | Gujarat (AD 1299) | Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan | • Plunder of Somnath Temple |
| • Nusrat purchased Kafur Hazar Dinari | |||
| Rana Hamir Deva | Ranthambore (AD 1301) | – | • Alauddin married Chief Queen of Gujarat Kamala Devi |
| Rana Ratan Singh (Gehlot) | Chittor (AD 1303) | Alauddin Khilji, Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan | • Nusrat Khan died |
| • Fort of Ranthambore taken | |||
| • Jauhar ceremony by women (Rani Padmavati episode) | |||
| • Alauddin’s son Khiz Khan was given Governorship of Chittor | |||
| Ram Chandra Dev | Devagiri (AD 1307) | Malik Kafur | • Chittor renamed as Khizrabad |
| Sheetal Dev | Fortress of Siwana (AD 1307) | Sheetal Dev | • Ram Chandra Dev was given the title of Rai Rayan (AD 1308) |
| Pratap Rudra Dev II | Warangal (AD 1309) | Malik Kamal-ud-din, Malik Kafur | • Kohinoor diamond taken away |
| Veer Ballal III | Dwarasamudra (AD 1310) | – | • King agreed to pay annual tribute to Delhi |
| Vir Pandya | Madurai (AD 1311) | Malik Kafur | • King agreed to pay annual tribute to Delhi |
| Kanhar Deva | Jalor (AD 1311) | Malik Kamal-ud-din | • Fortress of Jalor seized |
| Shankara Deva | Devagiri (AD 1313) | Malik Kafur | • Devagiri was annexed and included in Sultanate |
Administration During Alauddin Khilji’s Reign
- Alauddin Khilji, a robust and efficient ruler, instituted a formidable Central Government.
- Embracing the theory of Divine Right, he maintained a clear separation between religion and politics.
| In an effort to keep a tight rein on the nobility, he seized their properties and implemented an intelligence system to monitor their clandestine activities. During his rule, the public sale of drugs and alcohol was halted. |
- Social gatherings and festivities required the Sultan’s permission to proceed.
- Alauddin received daily market reports from Barids (Intelligence Officers) and Munhiyans (Secret Spies).
- Parties and marital unions among nobles necessitated explicit permission from the Sultan.
- Many jagirs and estates were confiscated, and all pensions and allowances were discontinued.
- Religious endowments and state-granted land allocations (waqf and inam) were annulled.
- Alauddin established an extensive spy network throughout his kingdom, known as Munhiyan.
- The trading class known as Banjaras played a crucial role in Alauddin Khilji’s strategy for transporting grains to city markets.
Revenue/Agrarian Reforms:
- Alauddin Khilji implemented comprehensive reforms in the revenue system, focusing on the measurement (Paimaish) of cultivable land, termed Zabita, with a fixed yield per Biswa serving as the unit for revenue collection.
- He aimed for uniform taxation, requiring landlords (Khuts and Muqaddams) to pay taxes on milch cattle and houses, abandoning unauthorized cess collection. The areas surrounding Delhi were brought directly under state control for revenue, excluding them from the Iqta system.
- Alauddin, in an attempt to control prices, extended regulations to various commodities, from essential food grains to daily items like caps, socks, combs, needles, vegetables, soups, and sweetmeats. This broad control, however, resulted in oppressive laws, causing resentment among the people.
- Land revenue (Kharaj) was fixed at half of the produce, establishing a direct relationship between farmers and the state while curbing middlemen (Khuts, Choudharis, Muqaddams).
Market Control:
- Alauddin Khilji established three distinct markets in Delhi for food grains, expensive clothes, horses, slaves, and cattle. These markets were supervised by two officers, Diwan-i-Riyasat and Shahana-i-Mandi. State-operated warehouses stored food grains and released them during famines or shortages. The transportation of grains from villages to Delhi was facilitated by Karwanis or Banjaras. Hoarding was prohibited, and all merchants were required to register with state drafters.
- The position of a special officer called Mustakharaj was established for revenue collection.
Market for Cloth (Sarai-e-Adal):
- Alauddin decreed that all cloth brought by merchants from across the nation, including foreign countries, must be stored at the cloth market (Sarai-e-Adal) and exclusively sold at official prices.
- Merchandise would be confiscated, and the seller penalized if it was sold for even one jital above the specified price. All merchants were registered, and a deed was obtained from them, ensuring they would consistently supply goods to Sarai-e-Adal each year at government prices, guaranteeing a sufficient commodity supply.
The market for Food Grains:
- To control food prices, Alauddin regulated the supply of food grains from villages and their transportation to the city by grain merchants (Karwanis or Banjaras) and ensured their proper distribution
- Food grains were primarily transported by Karwaniyan or Banjaras, overseen by an appointed official called Shahna. Stringent measures were taken to ensure adherence to set prices, with a Shahna in charge of the market instructed to punish any violators.
Market for Horses, Cattle, and Slaves:
- A reliable supply of high-quality horses at reasonable prices was essential for the military. The horse trade, mainly controlled by Multanis and Afghans, had middlemen or dallows selling horses in the market.
| According to Barani, influential Dallas were as powerful as market officials, engaging in bribery and corrupt practices. Horse merchants collaborated with Dallas to manipulate horse prices. |
- Alauddin took stringent measures against these dallals, expelling some from the town and imprisoning others.
- Although the broker system was curtailed, it was not entirely eliminated. Prices for slaves were fixed at approximately 5-12 tankas, and anyone could hire a woman servant.
Military Reforms:
- Zafar Khan, a renowned army commander under Khilji, laid the foundation for a permanent standing army, making Alauddin the first Sultan of Delhi to do so. Realizing land revenue in cash enabled him to pay soldiers in cash, and direct recruitment was carried out by Arz-i-Mamalik.
| The introduction of Daag (branding horses) and the Huliya or Chehra system facilitated the sale of horses directly to the Military Department (Diwan-i-Arz). |
- The army was organized into three grades: foot soldiers, soldiers with one horse (ek-aspa), and soldiers with two horses (do-aspa).
Military Conquests:
Alauddin’s military conquests included:
- In 1299, Gujarat was attacked by Malik Kafur, a eunuch and loyal campaigner for Khilji, also known as Hazar Dinari. Generals Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan conquered Gujarat.
- In 1301, Alauddin captured Ranthambore, killing its ruler, Hamir Deva Chahmana.
- In 1303, Khilji attacked Mewar (Chittor), ruled by Rana Ratan Singh. Queen Rani Padmini and all the women in the palace committed Jauhar to avoid capture by Alauddin Khilji.
| Malik Muhammad Jayasi later wrote Padmavat in the 16th century about the Jauhar incident in Chittoor. |
- In 1305, he annexed Malwa (Mandu) from the Paramars with the support of his General Ain-ul Mulk Multani.
- In 1311, Alauddin Khilji emerged victorious against the Chahmanas of Siwana and Jalore in Western Rajasthan.
Alauddin Khilji’s Southern Invasions:
- Alauddin Khilji’s Deccan Policy was primarily motivated by financial considerations. Following his significant triumph in the North, he utilized his formidable forces to capture states in South and South-West India.
- Sending his confidante and General Malik Kafur against Southern rulers, he defeated Prataprudra II of Warangal, Ramachandra Deva (the Yadava king of Devagiri), and Vira Ballala III (the Hoysala king).
End of Khilji Dynasty:
- After Malik Kafur died in AD 1316, Alauddin’s older son, Mubarak Shah, ascended as the last ruler of the Khilji Dynasty. Mubarak Shah promptly reversed his father’s reforms, leading to market inflation. Despite brief campaigns in Gujarat and Warangal during his short reign, the Khilji Dynasty came to an end.
- Khusrau Khan, a converted slave and a favorite of Mubarak Shah, assassinated him in AD 1320 as an act of revenge.
- Khusrau Khan’s three-month rule faced unpopularity among Muslim nobles in Delhi due to allegations of favoritism towards his original Hindu caste.
- A revolt led by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq resulted in Khusrau Khan’s overthrow after defeats at the Battles of Saraswati and Lahrawat, marking the conclusion of the Khilji Dynasty in AD 1320 and the rise of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the Delhi Sultanate.
The Tughlaq Dynasty AD 1320 to 1414.
- The Tughlaq Dynasty, a Muslim Turko-Indian lineage, governed Delhi from AD 1320 to 1414. Commencing with Ghazi Malik’s ascension to the throne as Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq in AD 1320, the dynasty concluded in AD 1413. The dynasty reached its pinnacle between AD 1330 and 1335 through military endeavors led by Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
- Post AD 1335, the dynasty faced internal strife, cruelty, and uprisings, leading to a rapid decline in its territorial control. The key rulers during this period were Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and Firuz Shah Tughlaq.
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (AD 1320-1325):
- He became the first Sultan of Delhi to append the title “Ghazi” to his name. Ghiyas-ud-din formulated a code of law for the Civil Government and initiated the construction of Tughlaquabad, a significant palace fort.
- Notably, he clashed with the renowned Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya. Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq also laid the groundwork for large-scale canal construction to support agriculture.
- Amir Khusrau’s Tughlaqnama provides insights into the ascent of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq.
- Adopting an assertive forward policy, Ghiyas-ud-din initiated the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate’s borders.
- In 1321, he dispatched his eldest son, Ulugh Khan (later known as Muhammad bin Tughlaq), to Deogir for the unsuccessful plunder of the Warangal Hindu Kingdoms.
- Undeterred, Ghiyas-ud-din sent significant reinforcements, leading to a successful second attempt in Warangal, and subsequent control over Bengal, Utkala (Orissa), and Warangal. He also apprehended and imprisoned Mongol leaders who invaded North India.
- Following these events, Ulugh Khan orchestrated the conquest and assimilation of Malabar (Tamil Nadu Coast). Subsequently, he raided Odisha, returning to Delhi laden with valuable plunder.
| By 1324, the borders of the Delhi Sultanate extended up to Madurai, and in 1328, the last Hindu principality in the region, Kampili (Karnataka), was also annexed. |
Administration Under Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq
- Under the administration of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, principles of justice and moderation were paramount.
- The organization of justice and revenue systems was meticulous, with the Sultan taking great care to prevent abuses.
- Cultivators were treated fairly, and those who misbehaved faced severe punishment. Even in the farthest reaches of the empire, the Justice and Police departments were effective, ensuring a high level of security.
- To strengthen the state’s finances, Ghiyas-ud-din implemented a tax system, reducing land revenue to 1/10 of the total produce. He also undertook improvements in communication methods, roads, bridges, and canals.
Conquest of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq
- Facing challenges from neighboring governors attempting to declare independence in the post-Alauddin Khilji chaos, Ghiyas-ud-din responded promptly.
- Prataprudradeva II, the ruler of Warangal, declared independence after Alauddin’s death, leading to battles in 1321 and AD 1323. Warangal was eventually conquered by the Delhi Sultanate.
- In Bengal, during a conflict between Bughra Khan’s grandchildren, Ghiyas-ud-din seized the opportunity and launched an attack, gaining control over a significant portion of the region. On his return from Bengal, he defeated the Raja of Tirhut and annexed his lands.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (AD 1325-1351)
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq (AD 1325-1351) was deemed a marvel of his era, showcasing proficiency in various fields of knowledge such as astronomy, mathematics, medicine, and philosophy.
- He implemented a famine code to aid those affected by famines and introduced loans, known as Sondhar, to peasants for well-digging to enhance cultivation. In AD 1341, the Chinese Emperor, Toghan Timur, sought Muhammad’s permission to build Buddhist temples in the Himalayan region, and an envoy, Ibn Battuta, was sent to the court of the Mongol Emperor of China.
- During his reign, Muhammad bin Tughlaq launched successful campaigns, attacking and plundering regions like Malwa, Gujarat, Mahratta, Tilang, Kampala, Dhur-Samundar, Mabar, Lakhnauti, Chittagong, Sunarganw, and Tirhut. This period also witnessed the emergence of Vijayanagara (1336) and Bahamani (1347).
- Despite costly far-flung wars, the Delhi Sultanate briefly extended across most of the Indian subcontinent, as each raid on non-Muslim nations brought in more plundered treasure and compensation payments from captives.
- Initially tolerant of all religions, Muhammad bin Tughlaq received literary, religious, and philosophical education. He oversaw the construction of Jahanpanah, enclosing the inhabited area between Qila Rai Pithora and Siri.
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s life concluded in 1351 during a campaign in Sindh against Taghi, a Turkish slave tribe, while en route to Thatta, Sindh.
Mongol Invasion
- Following Muhammad Bin Tughlaq’s decision to relocate the capital to Devagiri, numerous Mongol incursions posed a threat to the sultanate’s North-Western boundary.
- Around AD 1327, Tarma Shirin, ruler of Transoxiana and the son of Daud, initiated a Mongol expedition into India. Daud had previously attempted to conquer and annex India during Alauddin Khilji’s era.
- According to Firishta’s account, the Mongols successfully overran Laghman and Multan, advancing towards Delhi.
Reforms Under Muhammad bin Tughlaq
Muhammad bin Tughlaq implemented innovative experiments, including
Token Currency
- In AD 1329, Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced copper token currency, intended to replace silver and gold coins.
- These token coins held a face value equivalent to silver and gold coins. According to Barani, the introduction of token currency aimed to preserve gold and silver.
- The copper coins were assigned the same face value as silver coins.
- Citizens paid their taxes in bronze coins while hoarding gold and silver ones. Consequently, the value of this currency declined.
- Goldsmiths began forging token coins on a large scale, leading to their rejection in the markets. Eventually, the Sultan halted the circulation of token currency and pledged to exchange silver coins for copper ones.
Transfer of Capital
- In the year AD 1327-28, Muhammad bin Tughlaq moved his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Devagiri).
| The relocation occurred in two phases, initially involving the royal family and later extending to others. The Sultan aimed for a capital far from Delhi to safeguard it from Mongol invaders. |
- The challenging weather during migration resulted in numerous deaths. Those who reached Devagiri faced health issues and struggled to adapt to life in South India.
- Courts and people were eventually moved back to Delhi in the subsequent years, deeming this policy a grave mistake.
Khurasan Expedition
- Khurasan, situated in Central Asia, was undergoing political instability.
- Civil war erupted in Khurasan and Iraq. Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq planned to conquer these regions.
- He assembled an army of 370,000 soldiers, investing substantial funds. However, the Persian Emperor’s refusal to assist led to significant financial loss and project abandonment.
Qarachill Expedition
- Qarachill, a small Hindu Kingdom in the Himalayas, operated independently from Delhi’s authority. Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq aimed to conquer it due to his powerful rule.
- A sizable army of 10,000 cavalrymen was dispatched, successfully subjugating Qarachill. Yet, challenges during the return journey, including the rainy season and local attacks, resulted in a significant loss of the Sultan’s army.
- Despite the setback, the King of Qarachill sent revenue for several years.
Increase in Taxation in Doob Region
- Doab, a fertile region between the Ganga and Yamuna rivers, faced a famine during Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s rule. Taxes were raised to replenish the royal treasury, causing widespread anger among citizens.
- Officers forcefully collected taxes, prompting people to seek refuge in the forest, migrate to other towns, or turn to banditry.
- The taxation increase project failed, leading to peasants losing their agriculture, leaving villages, and turning into rebels. The sultanate experienced severe political instability.
Taccavi Loans
- Taccavi loans were short-term loans provided to poor farmers to purchase seeds, fertilizers, equipment, and other agricultural needs during emergencies like famine or flood.
- Introduced in the late 1950s, it was a significant agricultural institution during Mughal times.
- The interest rate on such loans was as low as 6%.
Agriculture Department
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq established the Agriculture Department, Diwan-i-Kohi, focusing on converting uncultivated land into agricultural fields.
- Despite substantial investment, the scheme failed due to infertile land, and inexperienced and corrupt officers, resulting in financial losses. The department was shut down within three years.
Revolts During Muna one un Tughlaq
| States and places | Native Kings/Viceroy/Governors | Consequences |
| Sugar | Bahauddin Gurshasp | Gurshap was defeated and he took shelter with the Hindu Rai of Kampili. |
| Kordhana | Nag Nayak | Nag Nayak was defeated and forced to sue for peace. |
| Multan and Sindh | Bahram Aiba entitled Kishlu Khan | Kishlu Khan was defeated and killed. |
| Vijayanagara | Harihara and Bukka | The independent state of Vijayanagara was founded. |
| Madura | Hasan or Sayyid Ahsan Shah | Independent rule at Madura was established. |
| Bahamani | Bahman Shah | The Independent state of Bahamani was founded. |
Firuz Shah Tughlaq (AD 1351-1388)
- Following the demise of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Firuz Shah Tughlaq, his cousin, assumed the throne. Of Turko-Indian descent, his mother was a Hindu princess.
- Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehlari emerged as a prominent mystic during Firuz’s reign, contributing to the cultural transformation of the imperial court in Delhi.
- The court attracted poets, philosophers, jurists, and historians, with significant advancements made in the field of astronomy.
- Noteworthy works such as Ziqr-Munsobat Kawakib, Zigr-Munsobat, Burooj, and Shikar Nameh of Fateh Khan were written.
- Firuz Shah Tughlaq established numerous hospitals (Dar-ul-Shafa) where free distribution of medicines benefited the public. A Diwan-i-Khairat attended to orphans and widows.
- Initiatives included the creation of an Employment Bureau to address unemployment, along with the establishment of an Endowment fund. Lists of unemployed individuals were compiled on the orders of Kotwals.
- In an attempt to reclaim the old kingdom boundary, Firuz Shah Tughlaq waged war against Bengal in 1359. However, Bengal resisted and maintained independence from the Delhi Sultanate. Similarly, Malwa and Gujarat also seceded, declaring their independence.
- In AD 1360, upon returning from the Bengal expedition, he launched a raid on Odisha, seizing the capital, perpetrating a massacre, and desecrating the Jagannath Temple.
While this weakened Odisha’s ruling dynasty, the subsequent rise of the Gajapati Dynasty saw an extension of its rule southwards, reaching Karnataka.
- To assist in day-to-day administration, Firuz Shah Tughlaq appointed Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu Brahmin convert, as Wazir of his kingdom. In a departure from past practices, he put an end to cruel and inhumane punishments.
- Seeking guidance from Ulemas (Religious Clerics) in administration, he pursued policies that persecuted and marginalized Shias, Sufis, and Hindus, treating them as lesser citizens.
| The Jagir system, abolished by Alauddin, was revived and granted to the military, with Iqtas and the hereditary status of officials and soldiers. |
- A separate department, Diwan-i-Bandagan, was established for slaves, who were employed in royal factories known as Kharkhanas.
Economic Reforms Under Firuz Shah Tughalaq
- Firuz Shah Tughlaq implemented economic reforms by canceling debts advanced to agriculturists by the late Sultan and reducing land revenue rates.
- His notable contribution was the introduction of canals for irrigation, accompanied by an irrigation tax. The taxation policy was grounded in the principles of Islamic law, Shariat.
System of Taxation
| Type | Description |
| Kharaj | Land tax, is equal to 1/10th of the produce of the land. |
| Zakat | 2.5% tax levied on property given to Muslims. |
| Jizyah | A poll tax on non-Muslims, including Brahmins. Women, children, and the disabled were exempted from paying this tax. |
| Kham | 1/5th of the plunder captured in war. |
- He decreased Octroi’s duties on trade and introduced two denominations of mixed copper and silver coins, namely Adha (half jital) and Bikh (quarter jital). Additionally, a Shashghani or six jital piece was also in circulation.
Public Works, Art, and Architecture Under Firuz Shah Tughlaq
- Firuz Shah Tughlaq, the first Muslim king to embark on public utility projects, earned the nickname “lover of gardens.”
- He founded Jaunpur, Fatehabad, Hissar, and Firozpur near Badaun, renaming Ikdalsa to Azad and Pandua to Firozabad during his Bengal campaign.
- Firuz Shah also transported two Ashokan Pillars to Delhi from Khizrabad and Meerut and established a new town called Firozabad, also known as Firozshah Kotla, in Delhi.
- As a patron of learning, Firuz supported scholars like Barani and Afif, with Shams-i-Siraj Afif serving as the official historian of his reign.
Religious Intolerance by Firuz
- Despite his efforts to align himself with Muslim theologians, Firuz displayed religious intolerance by demolishing Hindu temples and allegedly burning a Brahmin for preaching to Muslims.
- He separated Jizyah from land revenue, imposing it on Brahmins, and ordered the removal of beautiful wall paintings from his palace. Notably, Firuz Shah declared himself the Deputy of the Khalifah of Egypt, a unique title in the history of Muslim India.
Military expeditions led by Firuz Shah Tughlaq
Military expeditions led by Firuz Shah Tughlaq unfolded as follows:
Expeditions of Bengal:
- In the wake of the disorder following Muhammad Tughlaq’s death, Haji Ilyas asserted his independence in AD 1352. The Sultan marched against him, but Ilyas sought refuge in the Fort of Ikdala, evading the Sultan’s efforts to subdue the fort.
| Zafar Khan, a Bengal noble, lodged a complaint against Ilyas, prompting the Sultan to organize a strong force and march against Bengal in AD 1359. |
- Ilyas’s son Sikandar ruled over Bengal by then, and upon the Sultan’s arrival, Sikandar also confined himself in the Fort of Ikdala.
- After significant resistance, Sikandar surrendered, and a treaty was concluded. Sikandar sent valuable presents, including four elephants, to the Sultan.
Expedition of Jainagar:
- Returning from Bengal, Firuz invaded Jajnagar in Orissa. The Hindu ruler of Jajnagar could not withstand the royal forces and fled.
- Although the soldiers resisted, they were eventually defeated. The Sultan broke idols and destroyed the Temple of Puri.
- The Hindu ruler, realizing his critical position, reached a treaty with the Sultan, offering precious presents and agreeing to pay annual tribute to the Sultan of Delhi.
Expedition of Nagarkot:
- Nagarkot was conquered by Muhammad Tughlaq during his Himalayan expedition in AD 1337. The famous Jwalamukhi Temple (Kangra) had been plundered by Ghazni in AD 1008-09.
- Firuz Shah Tughlaq was drawn towards it due to the depredations of its Hindu Raja into the surrounding country during his campaign to subjugate Daulatabad in AD 1360-61.
Expedition of Sindh:
- In AD 1362-63, Firuz conducted a long-deferred campaign against Thatta to avenge the wrongs suffered by the imperial army at the time of Muhammad Tughlaq’s death.
- The expeditionary force comprised 90,000 soldiers, including well-trained elephants and numerous infantry. Despite facing challenges, the Sultan eventually secured a treaty, compelling the opposing ruler to pay annual tribute. Subsequently, the Sultan and his soldiers returned to Delhi safely.
The End of the Tughlaq Dynasty
- The Tughlaq Dynasty met its end during the reign of the last ruler, weakened notably by Timur’s invasion in AD 1398.
- The Turko-Mongol invader, Timur, invaded and defeated the sultanate’s armies. The aftermath, marked by destruction, rebellion, and the massacre of citizens, plunged the city into chaos.
- Delhi struggled to recover from this loss for nearly a century. Timur appointed Khizr Khan as his Viceroy in Delhi, initially establishing control over Multan, Dipalpur, and parts of Sindh.
| Subsequently, Khizr Khan launched a campaign against the Tughlaq Dynasty, triumphantly entering Delhi in 1414, signifying the end of the Tughlaq Dynasty’s rule in India. |
The Sayyid Dynasty (AD 1414- 1451)
- The Sayyid Dynasty, commencing in AD 1414, saw Timur appointing Khizr Khan as the Governor of Multan, who later captured Delhi, establishing the Sayyid Dynasty.
- However, their rule remained weak, confined to areas in and around Delhi.
Khizr Khan (AD 1474-1421)
- Khizr Khan (AD 1474-1421), the founder of the Sayyid Dynasty, was nominated by Timur-e-lang as his representative in Delhi. Ruling as a Deputy of Timur’s son and successor, Shah Rukh, Khizr Khan successfully defended the Delhi Sultanate against rulers from Gujarat, Malwa, and Jaunpur seeking to conquer Delhi. His reign ended in AD 1421, succeeded by his son, Mubarak Shah.
Mubarak Shah (AD 1421-1434)
- Regarded as the most capable ruler of the dynasty, Mubarak Shah effectively quelled rebellions in Bhatinda and Doab, as well as the uprising led by Khokhars Chief Jasrat. His successor was Muhammad Shah.
| Mubarak Shah’s reign was marked by unrest and rebellions, compelling him to dedicate his entire rule to their suppression. Along the banks of the Yamuna River, Mubarak Shah founded the city of Mubarakbad. |
Muhammad Shah (AD 1434-45)
- Muhammad Shah, a weak ruler of the Sayyid Dynasty, ascended to the throne with the assistance of Sarwar-ul-Mulk.
- Disorder and mismanagement characterized his reign. The ruler of Malwa launched an attack on Delhi during his rule but with the support of Bahlol Lodi, the Governor of Lahore, and Sirhind, the Sultan successfully met the challenge.
- Subsequently, Bahlol Lodi attempted to capture Delhi during Muhammad Shah’s reign but was unsuccessful.
Ala-ud-Din Alam Shah (AD 1445-1451)
- Alam Shah, an indulgent and feeble king, chose to reside in Badaun. Fearing Bahlol Lodi, the Governor of Lahore and Sirhind, he transferred the capital from Delhi to Badaun. Alam Shah remained in Badaun until he died in AD 1478.
Lodi Dynasty (AD 1451-1526)
- The Lodi Dynasty, the first Afghan Pashtun dynasty in India under the Delhi Sultanate, ruled from AD 1451 to 1526.
- Rising to prominence under the Khilji and Tughlaq rulers, they governed for nearly 75 years.
- The Lodi Dynasty is renowned for its garden architecture style of tombs, exemplified by structures like the Lodi Garden in Delhi.
Bahlol Lodi (AD 1451-1489)
- The founder of the Lodi Dynasty, Bahlol Lodi (AD 1451-89), distinguished himself as a sagacious statesman aiming to revive the glory of the Delhi Sultanate. He achieved territorial expansions around Delhi, with a notable victory over Mahmud Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur.
- Among his successful conquests were Mewat (Ahmed Khan), Sambhal (Dariya Khan), Koll (Isa Khan), Suket (Mubarak Khan), Manipur and Bhongaon (Raja Pratap Singh), Rewari (Qutub Khan), Etawah, and Chandwar.
- To ensure a smooth succession, Bahlol Lodi divided his realm among his sons and relatives, designating his younger son, Sikandar Lodi, as his successor. However, this decision triggered a power struggle following Bahlol’s death in 1489.
Sikandar Lodi (AD 1489-1517)
- Succeeding his father, Bahlol Lodi, the capable Nizam Shah assumed the title of Sultan Sikandar Shah in AD 1489.
- Sikandar Lodi expanded his domain by conquering Bihar and Tirhut and establishing a friendship treaty with Ala-ud-din Hussain Shah of Bengal.
| Dariya Khan was appointed as the Governor of Bengal. Sikandar implemented an efficient espionage system and introduced auditing for financial accountability. |
- Victorious over the Rajput Kingdoms of Gwalior, Chanderi, and Dholpur, Sikandar Lodi eased trade restrictions, fostering economic prosperity. He introduced the Gaz-i-Sikandari, a measurement of agricultural land equating to 39 digits or 32 inches.
- Transferring his capital from Delhi to Agra, founded by him in AD 1505, Sikandar left a lasting impact. The village of Sikandara, near Agra, where Akbar’s tomb stands, was named after him.
- Despite promoting Sunni beliefs, Sikandar Lodi lacked religious tolerance, imposing Jizyah and Pilgrim’s tax on Hindus.
- He dismantled several Hindu temples, including the Nagarkot Temple, and actively promoted religious conversions.
- Sikandar Lodi embraced liberal ideas and composed verses in Persian under the pen name of “Guiruki.”
- In his rule, Sikandar established efficient administration with a focus on justice. Regular audits were conducted for jagir holders, and those found corrupt or involved in embezzlement faced severe punishments.
- Robberies and banditry on roadways were suppressed, ensuring security for travelers.
- Sikandar Lodi exerted control over wheat prices, reflecting his interest in agriculture.
- His reign ended with his death due to illness in AD 1517, and he was succeeded by his son, Ibrahim Lodi.
Ibrahim Lodi (AD 1517-1526)
- Following the demise of his father, Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi ascended to the throne, inheriting a weak and politically unstable sultanate with a depleted treasury due to trade challenges.
- Despite his prowess as a warrior, Ibrahim had a haughty demeanor, openly insulting his nobles and executing those who rebelled against him.
- Allam Khan Lodi and Daulat Khan Lodi, two close relatives, played a role in inviting Babur, the Timurid ruler of Kabul, to invade India.
- Encouraged by Rana Sanga of Mewar, Babur invaded India in AD 1526, ultimately defeating and killing Ibrahim Lodi in the initial conflict at Panipat.
First Battle of Panipat, AD 1526
- Daulat Khan Lodi and Alam Khan extended an invitation to Babur, leading to the invasion of India.
- Babur’s victory over Ibrahim Lodi marked the end of the Sultanate and the establishment of the Mughal Dynasty in North India. This battle was one of the earliest instances involving gunpowder, firearms, and field artillery.
Administration Under Delhi Sultanate
- Administration During the Delhi Sultanate era was organized with a central apparatus led by the Sultan, assisted by various nobles.
Central Administration:
- The principal administrator of the Delhi Sultanate was the Sultan, and the system operated on the principle of succession.
- The position of the ruler was not hereditary, and succession was determined through specific principles.
- The Sultans were regarded as agents of God, tasked with enforcing the divine laws outlined in the Holy Quran.
- The Wazir held a crucial role as the most significant minister in the administrative structure of the Sultanate.
Departments Under Central Administration
| Department | Founders | Works |
| Diwan-i-Wizarat | – | – Headed by Wazir, Prime Minister, and chaired the Finance Department. – Functionaries associated were Mushrif-i-Mamalik (Accountant-General) and Mustaufi-i-Mamalik (Auditor-General). |
| Diwan-i-Ariz | Balban | – Military Department. – Headed by Ariz-i-Mamalik. – Recruited troops, fixed and disbursed their salaries, and held periodic review or inspection of the forces. |
| Diwan-i-Insha | – | – Headed by Dabir-i-Mamalik, also known as Dabir-i-Khas and Amir Munshi. – Department of Royal Correspondence and kept a record of Royal courts. |
| Diwan-i-Risalat | – | – Headed by Chief Qazi called Sadr-us-Sadar. – Dealt with the religious affairs of the state. |
| Diwan-i-Qaza | – | – Headed by Qazi. – Department of Judicial Administration. |
| Department | Founders | Works |
| Diwan-i-Waqf | – | – Department of Grants and State Expenditure. |
| Diwan-i-Mustakhraj | Alauddin Khilji | – Department of Revenue Collection. |
| Diwan-i-Khilfi | Alauddin Khilji | – Department of Market Control. |
| Diwan-i-Riyasat | Alauddin Khilji | – Department of Market Control. |
| Diwan-i-Amir Kohi | Muhammad bin Tughlaq | – Department of Agriculture. |
| Diwan-i-Bandagan | Firuz Shah Tughlaq | – Department of Slaves. |
| Diwan-i-Khairat | Firuz Shah Tughlaq | – Department of Welfare Works. |
Provincial Administration:
The provincial government structure within the Delhi Sultanate operated as follows:
- Iqtas (Province): Governed by Muqtis or Walis
- Ships (District): Administered by Shiqdar
- Pargana (Sub-district): Supervised by Amil
- Village: Headed by Muqaddam or Chaudhari
Judicial System:
- The Sultan served as the highest judicial authority in the Delhi Sultanate.
- Possessing extensive powers, the Sultan acted as a complete autocrat. The judiciary department, known as Diwan-i-Qaza, was overseen by the Qazi.
Revenue Administration:
- The fiscal policy of the Sultanate adhered to the taxation theory proposed by the Hanafi School of Thought. This theory advocated the imposition of five types of taxes.
| Zakat, a religious tax paid by Muslims for the welfare of their co-religionists, was levied at a rate of 2.5% of the actual income or property. |
- The revenue collection was overseen by Amil, who held the position of the officer in charge.
Various Taxes Imposed during the Sultanate Era
- Kharaj: This tax pertained to land revenue and win as typically assessed at one-third of the agricultural produce. Payment could be made in cash or kind.
- Khams: The state’s portion of the spoils obtained by soldiers during wartime constituted this tax. It amounted to one-fifth of the war booty.
- Jizyah: Levied on Hindus as Zimmis, Jizyah was a specific tax.
- Ushar: This was a land tax collected from Muslim peasants.
Language and Literary Contributions:
- The advent of the Delhi Sultanate introduced a new language and literary style to the subcontinent.
- Persian became the official language of the Delhi Sultanate, with numerous works translated into Persian during this period.
- The Tutinama (Book of the Parrot) by Zia Nakhshabi marked the first Persian translation of Sanskrit stories. The 14th century witnessed the emergence of a new language, Urdu.
- Additionally, the growth of regional languages like Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, and Telugu was a highly significant development.
Sultanate Literature
| Books | Authors |
| Tahkik-i-Hind | Al-biruni |
| Qanun-i-Masudi | Al-biruni |
| Jamahir-Fi-Mafirat-al-Jawahir | Al-biruni |
| Tabaqat-i-Nasiri laila-Majnu, Quairanus-Sadain | Minhaj-us-Siraj |
| Khazain-ul-Futuh | Amir Khusrau |
| Tughlaqnama | Amir Khusrau |
| Nuh-Siphir | Amir Khusrau |
| Miftah-ul-Futuh | Amir Khusrau |
| Ayina-i-Sikandari | Amir Khusrau |
| Hasht Bihisht | Amir Khusrau |
| Shirin Khusrau | Amir Khusrau |
| Tarikh-i-Alai | Zia-ud-din Barani |
| Fatawa-i-Jahandari | Zia-ud-din Barani |
| Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi | Firuz Shah |
| Fatawa-i-Firoz Shahi | Firoz Abadi |
| Qamus | Hassan Nizami |
| Taj-ul-Masir | Hassan Nizami |
| Chach Nama | Abu Bakr |
| Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi | Fakhruddin |
| Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi | Shams-i-Shiraj Afif |
| Kitab-ul-Rehla | Ibn Battuta |
| Futuh-us-Salatin | Isami |
| Shah Nama | Firdausi |
Sanskrit Books Written In Sultanate Period
| Writers | Books |
| Parthasarathy Mishra | Shahstradipika on Karmamimansa |
| Jai Singh Suri | Ravi Verman |
| Vidhyadhhar Vamanbhat | Bann Gangadhar |
| Rupgoswami | Hamir Mardan |
| Pradyuman | Abhyudya |
| Prataparudra | Parvati Parinaya |
| Gangadas | Pratap Vilas Vidgadhm- Adhav and |
| Lalitmadhav |
Amir Khusrau
- Amir Khusrau, born in 1253, was a prolific Persian poet associated with the royal courts of over seven Delhi Sultanate rulers. Renowned for his versatility, he served as a soldier, composed poetry in Arabic, Persian, and Urdu, and excelled as a diplomat and musician.
- Innovating the Khaval style of singing, Amir Khusrau authored Tarikh-i-Alai or Khazain-ul-Futuh, an account of Alauddin’s conquests. His work Ashiga narrates the love story of Deval Rani and Khizr Khan.
- In Nuh-Siphir, he depicted the tale of Sultan Mubarak Shah, and in Fughlaqnama, his experiences in the court of Ghias-ud-din Tughlag.
- Known as Tuti-e-Hind or Parrot of India, Khusrau pioneered the fusion of Indian, Arabic, and Persian music, credited with inventing ubla, sitar, and modifying veena.
Ibn Battuta
- Ibn Battuta, hailing from Morocco in Africa, arrived in India during Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign, spending eight years in his court. His Arabic work, The Rihla, details contemporary social, economic, cultural, and religious practices.
- Ibn Battuta discussed India’s seasons, agriculture, soil fertility, village industries, and weaving skills, shedding light on the court of Tughlaq and the influx of musical instruments like Rabab and Sarangi with the Turks.
Music
- Sultanate rulers widely patronized music, with Balban encouraging the establishment of a society for dancers and musicians.
- Alauddin Khilji supported musicians like Gopal Nayak and Amir Khusrau, who introduced Pero-Arabic ragas and invented the Sitar, blending Hindu and Iranian systems.
- Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq banned music, but it flourished under Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
- Firuz Shah Tughlaq’s fondness for music led to the translation of the Indian classical work Ragdarpan into Persian.
Painting of Sultanate Period
- Sultanate paintings aimed at fusing Persian and Indian traditional styles, often showing influences of Jain and Rajasthani painting.
- Distinct sub-styles like Mughal, Rajasthani, and Deccani emerged, displaying individuality while sharing common elements.
Architecture of the Sultanate Period
- The Delhi Sultanate introduced new architectural forms, giving rise to Indo-Islamic architecture by synthesizing Indian and Islamic features.
The novel characteristics included:
- Incorporation of the arch and dome.
- Utilization of lime-mortar.
- Advancement of the true arch.
- Initially, they repurposed temples and other demolished structures into mosques. For instance, the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque near Qutub Minar in Delhi was constructed using materials obtained from the destruction of numerous Hindu and Jain temples.
- With the influx of artisans from West Asia, the arch and dome began to exhibit precision and perfection.
| The Tomb of Balban featured the inaugural true arch, while the Alai Darwaza showcased the inaugural true dome.Structures employed the combined principle of the Slab and Beam method during the Sultanate period. |
- Architecture during the Sayyid and Lodi Dynasty gave rise to a novel form of Islamic architecture, subsequently adopted by the Mughals.
- One architectural pattern was based on an octagonal plan encircled by an arched walkway with a single story in height, while another was founded on a square plan without a walkway, featuring two or three stories in height.
Prelims Facts
- Which Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate was also known as ‘Lakh Baksh’ – Qutb-ud-din Aibak [JPSC (Pre) 2003]
- Which ruler of the Delhi Sultanate was called a slave of a slave? – Iltutmish [UPPSC (Pre) 2016]
- Who was the first Sultan of Delhi who introduced regular coins and declared to Delhi the capital of his empire? – Iltutmish [UPPSC (Mains) 2014]
- On whose coins the name of the last Caliph of Baghdad appeared for the first time? – Iltutmish [UPPSC (Pre) 2012]
- The Mongols under Genghis Khan invaded India during the reign of which ruler? – Iltutmish [IAS (Pre) 2001, CGPSC (Pre) 2013]
- Which Sultan of Delhi was a contemporary of the Mongol leader Genghis Khan? – Iltutmish [UPPSC (Mains) 2007
- Who was the first woman ruler in the Indian subcontinent during medieval times? – Raziya Sultan [UPPSC (Pre) 2004, 2010
- The grand title assumed by King Balban after consolidating his power was – Zil-i-llahi [IAS (Pre) 1997
- Which ruler of Slave dynasty adopted a policy of ‘Blood and Iron’ in dealing with unruly elements? – Balban [UPPSC (Pre) 2009, BPSC (Pre) 2020
- Who introduced the famous Persian festival ‘Nauros’ in India? – Balban [IAS (Pre) 1993]
UPSC NCERT Practice Questions
1. Who is described in the following statement?
1. He was originally a slave of Turkistan.
2. In his childhood, he was brought by a merchant to Nishapur, where Qazi Fakhruddin Abdul Aziz Kufi purchased him.
3. The Qazi’s son sold him to a merchant who in turn sold him to Muhammad of Ghor. MPSC (Pre) 2016
(a) Qutb-ud-din Aibak
(b Balban
(c) Ikhtiyaruddin Muhammad
(d) Iltutmish
2. Which Sultan of Delhi Sultanate was knwon as “Lakh Baksh’? JPSC (Pre) 2003
a) Iitutmish
(b) Balban
(c) Muhammad bin Tughlag
(d) Qutb-ud-din Aibak
3. Who was the first Sultan of Delhi who introduced regular coins and declared Delhi the capital of his empire? UPPSC (Mains) 2014
(a) Nasiruddin Mahmud
(b) Iltutmish
(c) Aram Shah
(d) Balban
4. Who among the following Sultans organised Iqta, army, currency and other most important organs of Delhi Sultanate? WBCS (Pre) 2022
(a) Shams-ud-din litutmish
b) Ghiyas-ud-din Balban
(c) Muhammad bin Tughlaq
(d) Alauddin Khilji
5. Assertion (A) Razia was the last woman who ruled Delhi Sultanate.
Reason (R) Women held a high position in the social and economic structure of the Delhi Sultanate.
Codes
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.
6. Identify the person from the description given below: MPSC (Pre) 2018
1. He destroyed the dominance of Ulemas in the state.
2. He was a might warrior and a successful General.
3. He was supposed to be the first Sultan to attack the Southern kingdoms.
4. The famous poet Amir Khusrau was in his court.
Codes
(a) Altamash
(b) Muhammad bin Tughlag
(c) Alauddin Khilji
(d) Qutb-ud-din Albak
7. During the reign of which ruler, Ibn Battuta came to India? IAS (Pre) 2010, WBCS (Pre) 2021
(a) Akbar
(b) Muhammad bin Tughlag
(c) Iltutmish
(d) Alauddin Khilji
8. Which one among the following was/were the motive/motives behind Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s transfer of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad?
1. The shift to Daulatabad would given him a chance to establish control over Deccan and Gujarat.
2. It would provide access to the Western and Southern ports.
3. It would protect him from direct Mongol invasion from the North-Western frontier.
Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.
Codes
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
9. Consider the following statements. IAS (Pre) 2021
1. It was during reign of Iltutmish that Changhez Khan reached the Indus in pursuit of the fugitive Khwarazm prince.
2. It was during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlag that Timur occupied Multan and crossed the Indus.
3. It was during the reign of Devaraya II of Vijayanagara Empire that Vasco da Gama reached the coast of Kerala.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) Only 1
(b) 1 and 2
(c) Only 3
(d) 2 and 3
10. With reference to medieval Indian rulers, which one of the following statements is correct? IAS (Pre) 2002
(a) Alauddin Khilji first setup a separate Ariz’s department.
(b) Balban introduced the branding system of horses of his military.
(c) Muhammad bin Tughlaq was succeeded by his uncle to the military.
(d) Firuz Tughlag setup a separate department of Slaves.
11. Assertion (A) The scheme of the token currency of Muhammad bin Tughlaq proved unsuccessful. UPPSC (Pre) 2006
Reason (R) Muhammad bin Tughlay did not have the proper control over currently issue.
Codes
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and Rare true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(C) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.
12. Which of the following Sultan did not allow Ulema to interfere in political affairs? IAS (Pre) 2002
1. Balban
2. Alauddin Khilji
3. Muhammad bin Tughlaq
4. Firuz Shah Tughlaq
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
Codes
(a) Only 1
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) 3 and 4
13. Which of the following pairs is not correctly matched? UPPSC (Pre) 2011
(a) Ajmer – Quwwat-ul-Islam
(b) Jaunpur – Atala Masjid
(C) Malwa – Jahaz Mahal
(d) Gulberga – Jama Masjid
14. Who among the following translated 300 volumes of Sanskrit books collected by Firoz Tughlaq during the campaign of Nagarkot? UPPSC (Pre) 2023
(a) Mulla Abdul Baqi
(b) Azizudin Khan
(c) Mirza Muhammad Ali
(d) Talib Amuli
15. Which of the following is not correctly matched? UPPSC (Pre) 2023
(a) Shah Turkan-Wife of Iltutmish
(6) Hamida Banu Begum-Wife of Allaudin Khilji
(c) Iltutmish-Father of Razia
(d) Gulbadan Begum-Daughter of Babur
16. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer from the codes given below the lists. UPPSC (Pre) 2022
| List I (Builders) | List II (Builders) |
| A. Sultan Garhi | 1. Alauddin Khilji |
| 2. Red Palace | 2. Qutb-ud-din Aibak |
| 3. Jamat Khana Masjid | 3. Iltutmish |
| 4. Adhai Din ka Jhonpra | 4. Balban |
Codes
A B C D A B C D
(a) 3 4 2 1 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 3 4 1 2 (d) 4 3 1 2
Know Right Answer
1. (a)
2. (d)
3. (b)
4. (a)
5. (c)
6. (c)
7. (b)
8. (d)
9. (a)
10. (d)
11. (a)
12. (b)
13. (a)
14. (c)
15. (b)
16. (c)
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Q1: What is the significance of the Sultanate of Delhi in ancient Indian history?
A1: The Sultanate of Delhi marked a crucial period in Indian history, spanning from the 13th to the 16th century. It saw the establishment of Muslim rule in northern India after the defeat of the last Hindu ruler, Prithviraj Chauhan, by Muhammad Ghori. This era witnessed significant cultural, architectural, and administrative developments, laying the foundation for the subsequent Mughal Empire.
Q2: Who were the prominent rulers during the Sultanate of Delhi, and what were their contributions?
A2: Some notable rulers during the Sultanate of Delhi include Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Iltutmish, Balban, Alauddin Khilji, and Muhammad Tughlaq. Qutb-ud-din Aibak established the Delhi Sultanate, while Alauddin Khilji is known for his military prowess and administrative reforms. Muhammad Tughlaq, though remembered for his ambitious projects, faced challenges due to their impracticality.
Q3: What were the major administrative and economic features of the Sultanate of Delhi?
A3: The Sultanate of Delhi introduced a centralized administrative system with provinces ruled by governors known as ‘walis.’ The Iqta system, a land revenue system, played a crucial role in the economic structure. Trade and commerce flourished, with Delhi becoming a center for economic activities due to its strategic location on trade routes.
Q4: How did the Sultanate of Delhi impact art and architecture in ancient India?
A4: The Sultanate period witnessed the fusion of Islamic and Indian architectural styles, known as Indo-Islamic architecture. The construction of mosques, tombs, and forts, such as the Qutub Minar and the Alai Darwaza, reflects the architectural achievements of the time. This period laid the groundwork for the grand Mughal architecture that followed.
Q5: What were the major challenges faced by the Sultanate of Delhi, leading to its eventual decline?
A5: The Sultanate of Delhi faced several challenges, including invasions by Mongols, internal revolts, and administrative issues. The economic policies of rulers like Muhammad Tughlaq and the excessive taxation during Alauddin Khilji’s reign also contributed to discontent. These factors, along with external invasions, eventually led to the decline of the Sultanate and the rise of the Mughal Empire.
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