UPSC NCERT Notes - Tribal, Peasant, and Civil Uprisings

The history of India is marked by a tapestry of diverse socio-political movements, with tribal, peasant, and civil uprisings serving as crucial threads within this intricate fabric. These uprisings, often borne out of discontent and disenchantment, reflect the struggles of marginalized communities against oppressive systems and structures. Within the realm of modern Indian history, these movements have played a pivotal role in shaping the nation’s trajectory, challenging colonial rule, and advocating for the rights and autonomy of indigenous peoples and agrarian communities. In examining these uprisings, particularly through the lens of UPSC NCERT Notes, one gains insight into the complex dynamics of resistance, resilience, and transformation that have defined India’s historical landscape.

Table of Contents

Introduction

In pre-colonial India, there were numerous popular protests against the Mughal rulers, primarily driven by the imposition of high land revenue demands by the state and the harsh conduct of tax-collecting officials.
However, the advent of British rule in India and its policies had a significantly more detrimental effect on Indian peasants and tribes. Three pivotal factors contributing to uprisings and rebellions were:
The promotion of British-manufactured goods in Indian markets resulted in the destruction of Indian handloom and handicraft industries.
The expansion of British revenue administration into tribal territories led to the loss of tribal people’s control over agricultural and forest land.
Persistent exploitation in rural society, coupled with the growth of intermediary revenue collectors, tenants, and moneylenders.

The cumulative impact of these changes on the peasant and tribal fabric of society was highly destructive. The forceful acquisition of peasants’ surplus and the escalating burden of taxes rendered the peasants entirely dependent on the goodwill of intermediaries, such as merchants and moneylenders.

Tribal Uprisings in India

The rapid transformations implemented by the British in the economy, government, and land revenue structure served as the main catalysts for tribal uprisings during the 18th and 19th centuries.
Tribal communities had traditionally operated under a system of communal land ownership, which was supplanted by the introduction of the concept of exclusive ownership.
The influx of non-tribals into ancestral tribal lands brought about the establishment of settled agriculture, leading to the dispossession of land and subsequent suffering for the indigenous people.

Chaur Uprising (1766-1772, 1795, 1816)

The Chuar Rebellion unfolded in the southwest region of West Bengal’s Bankura district between 1798 and 1799, primarily in response to the exploitative land revenue policies of the British colonizers.

Led by the Chuars (local tribesmen) and Paiks (hereditary policemen), the rebellion was a reaction to the colonial policy of reclaiming farmlands held by the Chuars since Mughal times, along with the displacement of the Paiks from their longstanding roles as policemen and guards.

In June 1798, approximately 1500 Chuars revolted, setting fire to the market and kachahri of the Raipur region. English reinforcements faced resistance from local rebels, and even zamindars housing the Chuars in their mud forts refused to cooperate with British authorities.

Durjan Singh spearheaded the rebellion, resulting in the raid and burning of nearly thirty villages. The Chuar Rebellion gained momentum in 1799, extending to the Ambikanagar and Supur Parganas.

Witnessing widespread chaos in the district, the British Collector called for a restructuring of the police establishment to prevent the region from descending into anarchy.

Paharias Rebellion (1778)

The Paharias, a tribal group in the Rajmahal Hills of Santhal Pargana, maintained virtual independence before British rule in India. The expansion of settled agriculture by the British reduced the area of underwoods and pastures, sparking friction between hill inhabitants and settled cultivators.
In response, the Paharias began raiding established settlements more frequently. In the 1770s, the British launched a brutal campaign against the Paharias, hunting them down and resorting to violence.

The Paharias Revolt of 1778 was led by Raja Jagganath.

In the 1780s, the British adopted a pacification strategy, offering annual allowances to Paharia leaders in exchange for ensuring proper behavior among their troops.
However, not all Paharias accepted this policy. Some retreated deep into the mountains, away from enemy troops, to continue the struggle against outsiders and uphold their independence.

Tamar Revolts (1789-1832)

Between 1789 and 1832, the tribal people of Tamar in Jharkhand and Bengal rose in rebellion over seven times against the British, protesting the government’s flawed land allocation system.
Bhola Nath Sahay of Tamar led these revolts. The Oraons, Mundas, Hos, or Kols, each with their distinct social and cultural identity, joined the insurgents under the leadership of Ganga Narain Singh, a member of the Banbhum Raj family.
The tribals targeted Dikus in every village, resorting to arson and plunder. However, the government quelled the movement in 1832-33.

Khasi Uprising (1829-1832)

The British sought to occupy the hilly region between Garo and Jaintia hills to construct a road connecting the Brahmaputra valley with Sylhet, passing through the Khasi domain.

In 1793, the Khasis, under the leadership of Tirut Singh, a Khasi chief, revolted against the mobilization of workers for road construction, with the Garos joining the revolt. By 1833, the superior English military force had successfully suppressed the uprising.

Kol Rebellion (1831-32)

The Kol Rebellion, occurring between 1831 and 1832, was a revolt by the Kol tribal people of Chhota Nagpur (Jharkhand). It arose due to economic exploitation resulting from the land tenure and administration systems introduced by the East India Company. The tribal people, including Mundas, Oraons, Hos, and Bhumijs collectively known as Kols, initially targeted Sikh and Muslim thekedars who collected taxes through various means. Later, they extended their actions to plundering, killing Hindus in nearby villages, and burning their houses.

The insurgency was quashed through the killing of leaders, and their followers, and the arrest of many leaders by Thomas Wilkinson.

Ahom Revolt (1828-1833)

Despite their promise to withdraw from Assam after the First Burma War (1824-26), the British attempted to annex Ahom territories into the company’s dominion.

The Ahom Revolt, led by Ahom prince Gomdhar Konwar, sought to restore the ancient Ahom monarchy and expel the British.

Eventually, the company ceded upper Assam to Maharaja Purandar Singh Narendra, and part of the kingdom was returned to the Assamese king.

Khond Uprising (1837-56)

The Khonds, residing in vast hill tracts stretching from Tamil Nadu to Bengal and covering the Central provinces, initiated uprisings from 1837 to 1856 against British rule.
The main issues included the government’s attempt to suppress human sacrifice (Mariah), the introduction of new taxes, and the influx of zamindars and sahukars causing misery to the tribals.
Chakra Bisoi, also known as the Young Raja, led the movement. Chakra Bisoi disappeared in 1855, leading to the gradual decline of the movement. Another significant leader of the revolt was Radhakrishna Dandasena.

Santhal Rebellion (1855-1856)

The Santhal Rebellion of 1855-56 exhibited some of the most intense tribal passions and open denunciation of British rule. Covering the districts of Birbhum, Singhbhum, Bankura, Hazaribagh, Bhagalpur, and Munger in Orissa (Odisha) and Bihar, the rebellion was primarily triggered by economic causes.
The moneylenders and colonial administrators exploited the Santhals, with outsider merchants charging exorbitant interest rates on loans and engaging in other forms of exploitation, often leading to the seizure of tribal lands. The tribals, under the leadership of two Santhal brothers, Siddhu and Kanhu, turned against the British Government.
Over ten thousand Santhals gathered at Orta in June 1855 in response to a divine order instructing them to break free from their oppressors’ control, seize the country, and establish their own government. The rebels disrupted postal and railway communications between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal, declaring the end of the company’s rule and the beginning of the Santhal regime. They targeted the residences of moneylenders, zamindars, white planters, railway engineers, and British officials.
The open conflict with the British persisted until February 1856, when the rebel leaders were finally captured, and the movement was suppressed through significant repression. The British Government also established Santhal Pargana in the Santhal areas, making it illegal for Santhals to sell land to non-Santhals.

Damin-i-koh

The British designated the nearby area of Rajmahal Hills as Damin-i-koh, a large demarcated land declared for the Santhals.

Manipur Revolt (1891)

A robust Naga Movement led by Manipur’s charismatic leader Rongmei Jadonang aimed at establishing an independent Naga dominion. He was detained and executed by hanging in 1931. Subsequently, a 17-year-old girl named Gaidinliu assumed control of the movement, giving it a national tone and linking it to the Civil Disobedience Movement. Pandit Nehru honored her with the title Rani.

Bhil Uprising (1818-1900)

In Southern Rajasthan, the Bhils were incited to action by a Reform Movement led by Govind Guru, a bonded laborer. By 1913, it evolved into an attempt to establish a Bhil Raj. The British managed to suppress the uprising only after facing considerable resistance.

Munda Uprising (1899-1900)

The Ulgulan led by Birsa Munda in the region south of Ranchi in 1899-1900 stands out as the most prominent tribal rebellion.
Agrarian disorders rooted in feudal, zamindari, or individual tenures served as the catalyst for the religious-political movement spearheaded by Birsa.
In March 1879, Mundas, under the leadership of Birsa Munda, asserted their claim to Chhota Nagpur.
The Mundas envisioned an ideal and just society free from both internal strife and exploitation by European powers. Women actively participated in the movement.

Birsa Munda

Born into a poor Munda tribal family in 1874-75, Birsa passed the lower primary examination at the German Mission of Buzru. He later pursued further studies in Chaibasa under the influence of Anand Paure.
Embracing Vaishnavism, he advocated for the prohibition of cow slaughter. Birsa evolved into a prophetic figure, declaring himself a God or Bhagwan. He preached his ideals among the Mundas, and thousands became his followers, known as Birsaites.
Mobilizing against the British Government and foreigners, Birsa aimed to establish the Birsa Munda Raj. Captured by British forces, he died in jail on 9th January 1900.

Bastar Rebellion (1910)

The Adivasi people of the princely state of Bastar in Central India initiated the Bastar Rebellion, also known as the Bhumkal Movement (earthquake), against the British Raj in 1910.
Led primarily by tribal leader Gunda Dhur and Lal Narendra Singh, a Diwan, and the king’s cousin, the rebellion saw the widespread mobilization of tribals, resulting in a state-wide revolt against the British Colonial Government.
The uprising overwhelmed the small 250-strong police force in the state, leading to rioting, looting, and arson.
By the end of February, additional troops from neighboring Jeypore and Bengal quelled the revolt, resulting in the arrest of the leaders.
The primary catalyst for the rebellion was the British colonial policies regarding forest usage.
The British colonial administration initiated the practice of earmarking forests as reserves for specific firms.
The tribal population faced restrictions in utilizing the forests for income, leading to frequent displacement of their villages, which resulted in widespread resentment towards the colonial authority.
However, both the British and post-independence Indian Governments continued the policy of reserve forests, contributing to the further displacement of tribals from their lands.
The persistence of these policies, negatively impacting Adivasi livelihoods, has been a significant factor fueling the intense Naxalite insurgency in the Bastar division of Chhattisgarh, with continued tribal support for it.

Tana Bhagat Movement (1914-1919)

This tribal rebellion occurred between 1914 and 1919 and was led by Jatra Oraon and a group of Tana Bhagats or Oraons, primarily concentrated in the Bihar region of Chhota Nagpur.
Initially known as Kurukh Dharam, it began as a religious movement, akin to the Munda Movement.
The Tana Bhagats eventually opposed the British Government, as well as the Zamindars and Moneylenders.
Similar to Mahatma Gandhi, the Tana Bhagats advocated non-violence.
Ultimately, the British Government brutally quashed this uprising.

Rampa Rebellion (1922-1924)

Alluri Sitarama Raju spearheaded the Rampa Rebellion in the present-day regions of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
Taking inspiration from Bengali revolutionaries, AS Raju initiated an uprising against the British, a movement that transpired from 1922 to 1924.
During this rebellion, Alluri and his supporters engaged in various acts of resistance, targeting police officials, seizing weapons, and challenging oppressive policies.
The British managed to quell the movement in 1924 by capturing Alluri Raju, tying him to a tree, and executing him.

Peasant Rebellions and Movements

Peasants faced numerous challenges, including high rents, illegal levies, arbitrary evictions, and unpaid labor in zamindari areas.
In Ryotwari areas, the government imposed heavy land revenue, exacerbating the burden on farmers.
Fearing the loss of their sole source of livelihood, farmers often sought assistance from local moneylenders, who exploited their difficulties by imposing exorbitant interest rates.

The enactment of laws and the introduction of new legal systems significantly impacted the social, political, economic, and cultural aspects of Indian life, contributing to discontentment among the populace, particularly the peasants.

Phases of Peasant Movements

Peasant Movements	Characteristics
Before 1857	– British Government’s land revenue settlement practices	– Peasants compelled to give up a significant portion of income
	– Risk of losing land title if unsuccessful	– Forced commercialization of agriculture
	– Driven to grow and sell commercial crops at low prices	– Exploitation and marginalization led to revolt
Between 1857 and 1900	– Dissimilar to pre-1857 movements	– Peasants at the core of uprisings
	– Strong defense of rights	– Monetary demands, targeting plantation owners, zamindars, and intermediaries
	– Opposition to rise in land income and moneylenders’ exploitation	– Focus on economic grievances
First Half of the 20th Century	– Significant impact of national politics and movements	– Integral role in the fight for national independence
	– Mostly localized protests before 1914	– Gandhi’s arrival brought agrarian issues to the forefront
	– Peasant discontent becomes prominent in the national movement	– Connection between peasant protests and the broader struggle for independence

Rangpur Uprising (1783)

The Rangpur Dhing (Rebellion) unfolded in the districts of Rangpur and Dinajpur in Bengal in 1783. It emerged as a protest by peasants and Zamindars against the exorbitant revenue demands imposed by the government and revenue contractors.
During this period, the prevalent Ijaradari system involved the Company contracting Ijardars (revenue farmers) to pay fixed revenue either annually or every five years for a specific piece of land.
The Ijardar, however, showed little concern for the welfare of the farmers cultivating the land under him or the overall land development.

In response, the farmers elected Dirhinjanarayana as their leader and initiated attacks on local kutcherries, dismantled houses, and destroyed crops belonging to the local agents of the contractors and government officials.

Hindus and Muslims united in this rebellion.
Ultimately, the government’s armed forces intervened, gaining control of the situation and suppressing the revolt.

Indigo Revolt (1859-60)

In Bengal, European indigo planters exploited local peasants by compelling them to cultivate indigo on their lands instead of more profitable crops like rice.
The planters coerced peasants into accepting advances and entering into fraudulent contracts.
Under the leadership of Digambar Biswas and Bishnu Biswas from Nadia district, the Indigo Revolt emerged as a movement against the coercive cultivation of indigo. Refusing to succumb to pressure, the leaders and peasants resisted physical coercion and various tactics employed by the planters, such as evictions and rent increases. The Bengali intelligentsia played a crucial role in supporting the cause of the resisting peasants.

To address the issue, the government established an Indigo Commission, which, based on its recommendations, issued a notification in November 1860.

According to the notification, ryots could not be compelled to grow indigo, and the government committed to ensuring that all disputes would be resolved through legal means.

Pabna Rebellion (1870- 1880)

During the 1870s and 1880s, Eastern Bengal experienced widespread agrarian unrest due to the oppressive practices of the Zamindars.
These landlords imposed rents beyond legal limits and prevented tenants from acquiring occupancy rights. In response, peasants in Yusufshahi Pargana, Pabna district, formed an agrarian league to resist Zamindars’ demands.
The league initiated a rent strike, with ryots refusing to pay enhanced rents and challenging Zamindars in court. Many peasants successfully acquired occupancy rights and resisted rent increases.
The government, in response to the unrest, promised legislative measures to protect tenants from zamindari oppression. The Bengal Tenancy Act was enacted in 1885. Notably, young Indian intellectuals, including Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, RC Dutt, and the Indian Association led by Surendranath Banerjee, supported the cause of the peasants.

Deccan Ryots (1875)

The ryots in the Deccan region of Western India faced heavy taxation under the Ryotwari System. Moneylenders, predominantly outsiders such as Marwaris or Gujaratis, exacerbated the financial burden on the ryots.
The situation worsened due to a decline in cotton prices following the conclusion of the American Civil War in 1864, the government’s decision to increase land revenue by 50% in 1867, and a series of poor harvests.
In 1874, escalating tensions between moneylenders and peasants led to a social boycott movement organized by ryots against outsider moneylenders. The government managed to suppress the movement, and as a conciliatory step, the Deccan Agriculturists Relief Act was enacted in 1879.

Kisan Sabha Movement (1920)

After the 1857 Revolt, the Awadh taluqdars regained control of their lands, strengthening the dominance of taluqdars or large landlords over the agrarian society in the province. Most cultivators faced high rents, summary evictions (bedakhali), illegal levies, and renewal fees or nazrana.
Due to the efforts of Home Rule activists, Kisan Sabhas were organized in UP. The United Provinces Kisan Sabha, established in February 1918 by Gauri Shankar Mishra and Indra Narayan Dwivedi, featured prominent leaders such as Jhinguri Singh, Durgapal Singh, and Baba Ramchandra. In October 1920, the Awadh Kisan Sabha emerged due to differences within nationalist ranks.
The Awadh Kisan Sabha urged peasants to abstain from cultivating bedakhali land, refuse to provide hari and beggar (forms of unpaid labor), boycott those who did not accept these conditions, and resolve disputes through Panchayats. The primary centers of activity were the districts of Rai Bareilly, Faizabad, and Sultanpur.

Eka Movement (1921)

By the end of 1921, peasant discontent resurfaced in some Northern districts of the United Provinces, including Hardoi, Bahraich, and Sitapur.
The issues included high rents—50 percent higher than the recorded rates, oppression of thekadars in charge of revenue collection, and the practice of share rents.
The grassroots leadership of the Eka Movement came from Madari Pasi and other low-caste leaders, along with many small Zamindars. Severe repression by authorities brought the movement to an end by March 1922.

Bardoli Satyagraha (1928)

The Bardoli taluka in the Surat district witnessed intense politicization after the arrival of Gandhiji.
The movement began in January 1926 when authorities decided to increase the land revenue by 30 percent.
A Bardoli Inquiry Committee was established to address the issue, finding the revenue hike unjustified. In February 1926, Vallabhbhai Patel was called to lead the movement, earning the title “Sardar” from the women of Bardoli.
To organize the movement, Patel set up 13 caravans or workers’ camps in the taluka, including an intelligence wing to ensure all tenants followed the movement’s resolutions.

Tebhaga Movement (1946)

The Tebhaga Movement was a significant peasant agitation initiated in Bengal by the All-India Kisan Sabha, the peasant front of the Communist Party of India. This intense peasant movement occurred on the eve of India’s independence and the partition of Bengal.
The movement focused on the demand for Tebhaga (two-thirds shares) by sharecroppers of their produce, challenging the traditional one-half share given to them by the tears, a class of intermediary landowners.
Despite the colonial rulers employing repressive measures and introducing a reign of terror in rural areas, the movement gained momentum.

The Bengal Land Revenue Commission, also known as the Floud Commission, had recommended in favor of the sharecroppers.

Telangana Movement (1946)

The princely state of Hyderabad under the Asaf Jahi Nizams was characterized by a combination of religious-linguistic domination, the absence of political and civil liberties, and the grossest forms of forced exploitation by Deshmukh, jagirdars, and doras (landlords) through forced labor (vethi) and illegal exactions.
The uprising began in July 1946 when a YAM Deshmukh’s thug murdered a village militant in Jangaon taluq of Nalgonda.
Peasants organized themselves into village sanghams and employed lathis, stone slings, and chili powder in their attacks.
The peasants successfully routed the Razaqars, the Nizam’s stormtroopers. After the Indian security forces took over Hyderabad, the movement gradually subsided.

Peasant Movements

Movements	Locations	Leaders	Causes
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870)	Pune	MG Ranade	– To popularise the peasants’ legal rights.
Ramosi Uprising (1877-87)	Parts of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra	Vasudev Balwant Phadke	– Against British failure to address famine issues.
Bijolia Movement (1905, 1913, 1916, 1927)	Rajasthan	Sitaram Das, Vijay Singh Pathik	– Imposition of 86 different cases on peasants.
Champaran Satyagraha (1917)	Bihar	Mahatma Gandhi, Dr Rajendra Prasad,	– Against the Tinkathia System imposed by European Indigo planters.
		Raj Kumar Shukla
Kheda Satyagraha (1918)	Gujarat	Gandhiji and Vallabhbhai Patel	– Against ignored appeal for remission revenue in case of crop failure.
Uttar Pradesh Kisan Sabha (1918)	Uttar Pradesh	Mohan Malaviya	– To organize a stronger Peasant Movement in Uttar Pradesh.
Awadh Kisan Sabha (1920)	Awadh	Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Rama Chandra	– To mobilise peasants.
Peasant Movement in Awadh (1919-1922)	Pratapgarh, Sultanpur, Rai Bareilly, Faizabad	Jhinguri Singh, Baba Ram Chandra	– Increase in revenue demands.
Peasant Movement in Bihar (1929-39)	Various Parts of Bihar	Swami Sahajananda	– Against the abolition of Zamindari and illegal cess.
Moplah Rebellion (1921)	Malabar region, Kerala	Sayyed Ali, Sayyid Fazl	– Against oppression and exploitation of Muslim Moplah peasants.
Andhra Ryots Association (1928)	Andhra Pradesh	NG Ranga	– Abolition of zamindari.
Peasant Movement in Punjab (1930-40)	Jalandhar, Amritsar, Shekhpura, Hoshiarpur	Singh, Master Hari Singh, Tej Singh	– Hike in Canal tax.
		Mase tar shef	– Against the hike in revenue in Lahore and Amritsar.
Punnapra Vayalar Uprising (1946)	Travancore (Kerala)	MP Pillai	– Conditions of Famine.
Warli Movement (1945-1949)	Worli Region of Mumbai	Godavari Purulekar	– Against the Begnei System and big landlords.
Rangpur Revolt (1783)	Dinajpur, Bengal	Dheeraj Narayan	– Protest by peasants and Zamindars against high revenue demands.
Mewar Movement (1920)	Mewar	Vijay Singh Patnik, Manik Lal Verma,	– Land Revenue and taxation were the main issues of the movement.
		Haribhau Upadhyay
Bakasht Movement (1935)	Bihar	Swami Shradhananda Saraswati, Yadunandan	– Peasant Movement launched for the abolition of the Zamindari System.
		Sharma, Rahul Sankrityana, Panchanan Sharma

Civil Uprisings in India

The Civil Uprisings mainly took place against the administrative and revenue policies of the British Government.
The mass support of these revolts mainly come from the unemployed artisans, rack-rented peasants, and demolished soldiers.

Sanyasi Rebellion (1770-1777)

In the latter half of the 18th century, Bengal faced economic distress and political unrest due to continuous wars, famines, and British exploitation of land and people.
The displaced and homeless found refuge among groups of religious mendicants, known as Sanyasis or Faqirs, who formed large communities and sustained themselves through begging.
As economic hardships intensified, Sanyasis resorted to taking forcibly what they could no longer obtain voluntarily.
In response, Warren Hastings dispatched troops to suppress the rebellion.

In 1772, Captain Thomas lost his life to a group of Sanyasis. Led by the courageous Majnu Shah Faqir, the Sanyasis waged a rebellion from Rangpur to Dhaka, defeating sepoys and killing commanders. This Sanyasi Rebellion persisted until the end of the century.

Velu Thampi (1765-1809)

Velu Thampi, the Diwan of Travancore (Kerala), rebelled in 1808-09 when the British attempted to revoke his Diwanship and imposed the Subsidiary Alliance system. The British executed him, making him the sole head of a state to be hanged during their rule.

Kittur Rebellion (1778-1829)

The British thwarted the ascension of the adopted son of the Chief of Kittur (in Karnataka) to power by taking control of the administration. In response, rebels declared Kittur an independent state before being suppressed by the British.

Paika Rebellion (1817)

The Paika Rebellion of 1817 was an armed uprising against the British by the Paikas of Khurda in Odisha.
Led by Buxi Jagabandhu Bidyadhara, the Paikas, a class of military retainers, had served Odisha kings since the 16th century.
The rebellion arose from various social, economic, and political causes, including the closure of Odisha’s trading ports by the East India Company, alienation of local administrators and Paikas due to land seizures, and the general discontent with the Company administration.
The East India Company, following its conquest, eliminated the cowrie currency system that prevailed in Odisha and mandated tax payments in silver.
In 1804, the Raja of Khurda devised a rebellion plan against the company in collaboration with the Paikas. However, the plot was uncovered, leading to the confiscation of the Raja’s territory.

Ramosi Revolt (1822, 1825-1826)

In 1822, the Ramosis, led by Chittur Singh, revolted in Satara to protest against the exorbitant land revenue assessment and revenue collection methods.
Faced with famine and scarcity, they rebelled again in 1825-26, this time under Umaji. The three-year-long Ramosi Uprising concluded when the rebels were granted land and incorporated into the hill police ranks.

Pagal Panthi Uprisings (1825-1850)

The Pagal Panth was a semi-religious sect, mainly comprising members from primitive tribes like Hajong and Garo.
Founded by a Darvesh named Karam Shah, the sect’s leader Tipu organized an uprising of Garo and Hajong peasants in January 1825. The Pagal Panthi Uprising persisted for around a decade (1825-35) and was ultimately quelled through extensive military operations.

Sawantwadi Revolt (1844)

In 1844, Maratha Chief Phond Sawant of Sawantwadi led a rebellion with support from other Sardars. The rebels captured forts in their struggle against the British but eventually sought refuge in Goa. The rebellion concluded with the capture of the insurgents.

Gadkari Revolt (1844)

The Gadkaris, hereditary servants of the Marathas, expressed dissatisfaction with the British regime, particularly its Arbitrary System of Land Revenue Collection.
In 1844, numerous Gadkaris were compelled to relinquish their service, and the oversight of lands was entrusted to mamlatdars. Consequently, the Gadkaris staged a rebellion in Kolhapur, inflicting substantial material losses on the British before being ultimately subdued.

Kuka Movement (1872)

The Kuka Movement represented the initial significant response of the Punjab populace to the new political order introduced by the British after 1849.
The Namdhari Movement, of which the Kuka Movement was a pivotal phase, sought to overthrow British rule.
Participants in the movement voiced their opposition to foreign rule during a period when people anticipated a potentially harsh approach from the rulers. They played a noteworthy role in India’s historic Non-Cooperation Movement.

Moplah Rebellion (1921

The Moplah Rebellion of 1921 marked the culmination of a series of uprisings by Moplahs (Muslims of Malabar) in the 19th and early 20th centuries against the British and Hindu landlords in Malabar (Northern Kerala).
The Moplahs predominantly worked as cultivators under this system, while the Jenmis were upper-caste Hindus.
During Hyder Ali’s invasion of Malabar in the 18th century, numerous Hindu landlords fled the region to escape persecution and forced conversions.
In their absence, Moplah tenants were granted ownership rights to the lands.

Following Tipu Sultan’s death in 1799 in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, Malabar came under British authority as part of the Madras Presidency. The British sought to reinstate ownership rights for the earlier fleeing Jenmis.

Jenmis were now granted absolute ownership rights over the land, a departure from the previous arrangement. The peasants now faced exorbitant rents and insecurity of tenure.
This triggered a series of uprisings by the Moplahs, beginning in 1836. Between 1836 and 1896, they targeted numerous government officials and Hindu populations.
The Khilafat Movement was started in 1919 demanding the restoration of the Caliphate in Turkey.
The Indian National Congress (INC) supported the cause of the Khilafat Movement.

Other Revolts

Revolts	Description
Poligar Revolt (1795-1805)	– Poligars of Dindigal and Malabar rebelled against the oppressive British land revenue system during 1801-06. – The first Polygar War in 1799, led by Kattabomma Nayak of Panchalamkurichi, resulted in his capture and public hanging in Pudukottai. – The Second Polygar War (1800-01) is also known as the South Indian Rebellion, marked by Polygar armies bombing British barracks in Coimbatore. – The Carnatic Treaty of 1801 granted the British direct control over Tamil Nadu.
Ganjam Revolt (1800 to 1805)	– Led by Dhananjaya Bhanja (Zamindar of Gumsur). – Growing discontent among Ghumsur tribals under British rule led to rebellion. – The tribals, led by Dora Bisoi, rose against British authorities.
Waghera Uprising (1818-1820)	– During 1818-1819, Wagheras advanced into British Territory. – Resentment towards alien authority and exactions by Gaekwad of Baroda led to Waghera leaders taking up arms. – A peace deal was concluded in November 1820.
Visakhapatnam Revolt (1827-1830)	– Local Zamindars, led by Birbhadra, revolted against the British Government’s harsh treatment, including property seizure and severe punishment for unpaid taxes. – The revolt in 1827-30 was crushed by the British authorities.
Bundela Rebellion (1842)	– In 1842, Sagar-Narmada territory witnessed an upsurge against British tyranny, known as the Bundela rebellion. – Leaders included Jawahar Singh Bundela, Madhukar Shah of Narhat, Gond Raja Dilhan Shah of Madanpur, and others. – The rebellion occurred in Madhya Pradesh and had leaders from various regions, including Narsinghpur.
Surat Salt Agitation (1844)	– The Surat Salt Agitation of 1844 protested against the British-imposed Rupee 1 excise and import duty on salt, increased from the previous 50 paise. – The administration repealed the extra salt tax in response to popular backlash.
Koya Uprising (1879-1880)	– Koyas in the Eastern Godavari track (now Andhra) revolted multiple times, assisted by Khonda Sara Commanders. – Tomma Sora led the uprising in 1879-1880, protesting police persecution, moneylender exploitation, new limitations, and denial of historical rights to forest areas. – After Tomma Sora’s passing, Raja Anantayyar led a new uprising in 1886.

Major Terms During the British Period

Term	Description
Dadni System	– Originated and grew in Bengal during the East India Company’s rule. – Engaged both Indian and European merchants to procure goods from producers and artisans. – Dadni-merchants received advances from the company for delivering goods under stipulated terms.
Kamiauti System	– Prevalent in Bihar and Orissa. – Form of bonded labour imposed on the Kamiya caste. – Levied on them for the payment of interest on the debt taken by this community.
Hali System	– Related to the bonded labour system in Western India. – Involves agricultural bonded labourers (Haliya) working on another person’s land. – Typically, these labourers were from high-caste backgrounds. – Mainly prevalent in Surat, Gujarat.
Tinkathia System	– Imposed by European planters on peasants in Eastern India. – Required peasants to grow indigo on three katas or 3/20 part of the total land. – Known as the Tinkathia System.

Prelims Facts

Who is the author of ‘Neel Darpan a book written on miserable condition of Indigo farmers? Dinbandhu Mitra [BPSC (Pre) 1997]
Who was the composer of the song “Vande Mataram’? -Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (CGPSC (Pre) 2005]
Which revolt was made famous by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in his novel ‘Anand Math’? Sanyasi Rebellion [IAS (Pre) 2006
Which was the chief centre of the Wahabi Movement during 19th century? – Patna (UPPSC (Pre) 1994]
The Pagalpanti rebellion was indeed a rebellion of …… -Garos [UPPSC (Pre) 1999]
Who was the leader of the Farazi rebellion? – Dadu Miyan (UPPSC (Pre) 1999]
Velu Jhampi led a rebellion against the British in which region? – Kerala (UPPSC (Mains) 2002)
Who founded Ramosi Krishak Jatha in Maharashtra? – Vasudev Balwant Phadke [BPSC (Pre) 1994]
The correct geographical location on for the Ramosi Uprising was – the Western Ghats (BPSC (Pre) 2015]
Which place was the centre of the Gadkari rebellion? – Kolhapur (UPPSC (Pre) 1999)
Which tribe rebelled against Britishers because the human sacrifice system was banned? -Khand (BPSC (Pre) 1995]
Who was the leader of the Bhumij Revolt? Ganga Narain [IPSC (Pre) 2021
In which year did the Jatra Oraon start the Tana Bhagat movement? 1914 (CGPSC (Mains) 2015
The word ‘Adivasi’ was used for the first time to refer to the tribal people by.-Jharkar Bappa [IAS (Pre) 1995]
The first tribal leader who was inspired by Mahatma Gandhi and his ideology was – Jodanang (JPSC (Pre) 2013]
The Barrackpur Mutiny took place in which year? – November, 1824 (UPPSC (Mains) 2006

UPSC NCERT Practice Questions

1. The term ‘Damin-i-koh’ is related to which of the following?

(a) Settlements of Paharias

(b) Settlements of Santhals

(d) Settlements of Afghan-Bengalis

2. The cause of Bhagadars (Tebhaga Movement) was supported by which of the following commission?

(a) Floud Commission

(b) Chat Field Commission

(d) Hilton Yong Commission

3. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched? UPPSC (Pre) 2008

(a) Munda: Birsa

(b) Santhal: Kanhu

(d) Nayak: Tana Bhagat

4. Which of the following pairs is not correctly matched? HPSC (Pre) 2021

(a) Ramasi Rebellion: Chittur Singh, AD 1822

(b) Santhal Rebellion: Birsa Munda, AD 1899

(d) Kol Rebellion: Buddha Bhagat, AD 1831

5. Which of the following statements are true about the revolt of Sanyasi and Fakir disturbances? TAS (Pre) 2006

1. Governor-General Warren Hastings constantly faced Sanyasi and Fakir disturbances in Bengal and Bihar.

2. Many Shaivite Naga ascetics formed armed forces.

3. Majnu Shah, who led the parties towards Bengal from AD 1771, was their main leader.

Codes
a) 1 and 2

b) 1,2 and 3

c) 2 and 3

d) 1 and 3

6. Which of the following caused the decline of Indigo cultivation in India at the beginning of the 20th century? IAS (Pre) 2020

(a) Protest of the cultivators towards the atrocious conduct of the Indigo growers.

(b) It’s unprofitable in the world market due to discoveries.

(d) Control of the government over the producers.

7. With whom was Swami Sahajanand related? BPSC (Pre) 1998, 2020

(a) With Tribal Movements of Bihar

(b) Bihar’s Caste Movements

(d) With the Labour Movements of Bihar

8. Which amongst the following provided a common factor for a tribal insurrection in India in the 19th century? IAS (Pre) 2011

(a) Introduction of a new system of land revenue and taxation of tribal products.

(b) Influence of foreign religious missionaries in tribal areas.

(d) The complete disruption of the old agrarian order of the tribal communities.

9. After the Santhal rising subsided, what was/were the measure/measures taken by the Colonial Government IAS (Pre) 2018

1. The territories called ‘Santhal Parganas’ were created.

2. It became illegal for a Santhal to transfer land to a non-Santhal.

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Know Right Answer

1 (b)

2 (a)

3 (d)

4 (b)

5 (b)

6 (b)

7 ((c)

8 (d)

9 (c)

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. Q: What were the main causes of the tribal uprisings during the British colonial period?

A: Tribal uprisings were primarily fueled by the British policies of land alienation, forest regulations, and cultural insensitivity. The imposition of new land revenue systems, displacement from traditional habitats, and the interference in their customary practices led to discontent among tribal communities, prompting various uprisings.

2. Q: How did the British policies impact the peasants and farmers, leading to widespread discontent?

A: The British policies, such as the introduction of the Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari System, and high land revenue demands, adversely affected peasants and farmers. The exploitation by moneylenders, coupled with crop failures and famines, intensified agrarian distress, sparking numerous peasant uprisings against the oppressive British economic policies.

3. Q: What role did social and religious factors play in the civil uprisings during the colonial period?

A: Social and religious factors played a crucial role in civil uprisings. Movements like the Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, and socio-religious reforms aimed at challenging orthodox practices and promoting social equality. The discontent against caste-based discrimination and social injustices often found expression in civil uprisings, contributing to the broader socio-cultural changes during that era.

4. Q: How did the revolt of 1857 impact tribal and peasant uprisings in subsequent years?

A: The revolt of 1857 served as a precursor to subsequent tribal and peasant uprisings. While the revolt failed to achieve its immediate goals, it instilled a spirit of resistance. The disillusionment with the British rule and the desire for independence found resonance in tribal and peasant communities, inspiring them to participate in later uprisings against colonial oppression.

5. Q: What were the significant outcomes of the tribal and peasant uprisings in shaping India’s struggle for independence?

A: The tribal and peasant uprisings played a pivotal role in shaping India’s struggle for independence. These movements highlighted the unity among diverse sections of society against colonial exploitation. The grievances expressed during these uprisings contributed to the formation of a broader nationalist sentiment, laying the foundation for the organized independence movement in the years to come.

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UPSC NCERT Notes – Modern History – Tribal, Peasant, and Civil Uprisings