The UPSC Prelims examination is a crucial step for aspirants aiming to join the prestigious civil services in India. In the Geography section of the Prelims syllabus, candidates are expected to have a comprehensive understanding of both physical and human geography.

The subject-wise bullet points may include:

1. Physical Geography:
   • Landforms and their features
   • Climatology, including atmospheric circulation patterns
   • Oceanography, covering currents, tides, and marine ecology
   • Geophysical phenomena like earthquakes and volcanoes
2. Human Geography:
   • Population dynamics, demographics, and migration patterns
   • Urbanization and rural-urban linkages
   • Economic geography, including agriculture, industries, and services
   • Settlement patterns and regional development
3. Indian Geography:
   • Physiographic divisions of India
   • Climate zones and monsoon patterns
   • River systems and their importance
   • Natural resources and their distribution
4. World Geography:
   • Major continents and their characteristics
   • Global environmental issues and conservation efforts
   • Geopolitical events and their impact on geography
   • International organizations related to geography and environmental concerns
5. Map-based Questions:
   • Identification of countries, capitals, and important physical features
   • Interpretation of topographic maps and geographical data
   • Geographical locations of significant events or landmarks

Candidates preparing for UPSC Prelims 2024 in geography should focus on an integrated understanding of physical, human, and regional geography. Additionally, staying updated with current events and their geographical implications is crucial for success in the examination. As the examination approaches, it’s advisable to refer to the official UPSC syllabus and any relevant notifications for the most accurate and up-to-date information.

World Geography

General Geography

• The universe encompasses everything, spanning from vast galactic superclusters to minuscule sub-atomic particles, with a radius of approximately 46 billion light years and an age of 13 to 15 billion years.
• Sirius stands as the brightest star beyond our solar system. Proxima Centauri, the nearest star to our solar system, is situated 4.2 light years away, followed by Alpha Centauri (4.3 light years away) and Barnard’s Star (5.9 light years away).
• A light year represents the distance light travels in one year, while an Astronomical Unit (AU) is defined as the average distance between the Sun and the Earth, making approximately 63,240 AUs equal to one light year.
• The life cycle of a star commences with a Stellar Nebula and progresses through stages like protostar, star, red giant/supergiant, planetary nebula/supernova, white dwarf/neutron star, and black hole, with the Chandrasekhar limit associated with this cycle.
• Our solar system resides in the Milky Way Galaxy, comprising the Sun, eight planets, dwarf planets such as Pluto, asteroids, meteors, satellites, and dust clouds.
• The Sun, with its mass and weight, governs the planetary movements through the force of gravity.

UPSC 2021

Q. Consider the following phenomena:

1. Light is affected by gravity.

2. The Universe is constantly expanding.

3. Matter warps its surrounding space-time.

Which of the above is/are the prediction/predictions of Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, often discussed in Media?

1. 1 and 2 only

2. 3 only

3. 1 and 3 only

4. 1, 2 and 3

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : 1, 2 and 3

• The phenomenon of gravitational lensing occurs when gravity bends light, resulting in the appearance of multiple images of the same distant astronomical object in the sky.
• In 1916, Albert Einstein predicted the existence of gravitational waves as part of his general theory of relativity.
• Einstein posited that gravity is a consequence of the warping of space and time—a curvature of spacetime induced by massive objects.
• In 1917, Einstein extended the general theory of relativity to the entire universe, revealing that the field equations anticipated a dynamic cosmos, either contracting or expanding. In the absence of observational evidence supporting a dynamic universe, Einstein introduced the cosmological constant to the field equations, allowing for the prediction of a static universe. 
• During this period, the modified field equations envisioned a stable universe with closed curvature, reflecting Einstein’s interpretation of Mach’s principle. This model is recognized as Einstein’s world or Einstein’s stable universe.
• The solar system is predominantly influenced by the Sun, representing almost 99.9% of the system’s matter.
• Scientists posit that the Sun originated from moving clouds of gases, known as Nebula.
• The Sun is essentially a sphere of hot gases, and its visible disc is referred to as the photosphere.
• Continuous emission of proton streams from the Sun, either as spiral streams known as Solar Wind or bursts of incandescent materials called Solar Flares, poses a risk to satellite communication due to the high temperatures of ionized gases.
• Insolation denotes the incoming solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface.

UPSC 2023

Q. With reference to the Earth’s atmosphere, which one of the following statements is correct?

1. The total amount of insolation received at the equator is roughly about 10 times of that received at the poles.

2. Infrared rays constitute roughly two-thirds of insolation.

3. Infrared waves are largely absorbed by water vapour that is concentrated in the lower atmosphere.

4. Infrared waves are a part of visible spectrum of electromagnetic waves of solar radiation.

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 3 : Infrared waves are largely absorbed by water vapour that is concentrated in the lower atmosphere.

• While it’s accurate that the equator receives more direct sunlight, resulting in increased solar energy compared to the poles, the disparity is not as extreme as ten times, rendering option 1 incorrect.
• The quantity of insolation received is influenced by multiple factors, including the angle of incidence, atmospheric conditions, and Earth’s surface features.
• Insolation encompasses the total solar radiation received at the Earth’s atmosphere’s top.
• Contrary to option 2, although a significant portion of solar radiation consists of infrared rays, it does not constitute two-thirds of the insolation.
• Insolation includes diverse wavelengths, such as visible light, ultraviolet rays, and infrared rays, with their specific proportions subject to variation.
• The visible spectrum encompasses light wavelengths visible to the human eye, spanning from about 400 to 700 nanometers. Infrared waves, not visible to the human eye, have longer wavelengths than those in the visible spectrum, refuting option 4.
• Infrared waves are predominantly absorbed by water vapor concentrated in the lower atmosphere.
• Water vapor, a greenhouse gas, plays a crucial role in regulating Earth’s temperature by absorbing a substantial amount of infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, thus affirming option 3.
• The first four planets near the Sun are termed Terrestrial planets, while the subsequent four are called Jovian planets.
• Black Hole: A region in space where gravity is so intense that even light cannot escape. The first-ever image of a black hole was unveiled by the Event Horizon Telescope in 2019.

UPSC 2017

Q. Recently scientists observed the merger of giant ‘black holes’ billions of light years away from the Earth. What is the significance of this observation?

1.  ‘Higgs boson particles’ were detected

2. ‘Gravitational waves’ were detected.

3. Possibility of inter-galactic space travel through ‘wormhole’ was confirmed.

4. It enabled the scientists to understand ‘singularity’.

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 2 : ‘Gravitational waves’ were detected.

• Two black holes, located billions of light-years away from Earth, recently collided, resulting in the formation of a larger black hole.
• The merger of these black holes, while orbiting each other, generated gravitational waves.
• The newly formed black hole has a mass exceeding 80 times that of the Sun.
• The energy released during the spiraling approach of the two black holes manifested in the form of gravitational waves.

About Gravitational Waves:

• Gravitational waves are disturbances in space-time originating from some of the most forceful and energetic occurrences in the Universe.
• Albert Einstein, in 1916, predicted the existence of gravitational waves within his general theory of relativity.
• Einstein’s mathematical formulations indicated that massive accelerating objects, like black holes orbiting each other or neutron stars, would distort space-time, generating waves that propagate outward in all directions from the source.
• These cosmic ripples move at the speed of light, carrying information about their origins and providing insights into the nature of gravity.
• The most potent gravitational waves arise from catastrophic events such as colliding black holes, supernovae (explosions marking the end of massive stars’ lifetimes), and colliding neutron stars.
• Other waves are anticipated from the rotation of non-spherical neutron stars and potentially from remnants of gravitational radiation originating from the Big Bang.
• Between Mars and Jupiter, an Asteroid Belt contains numerous small bodies like asteroids and comets. The home of comets lies far beyond Pluto’s orbit in the Oort cloud/Hill cloud. Earth’s Goldilocks Zone maintains conditions suitable for sustaining life, being neither too hot nor too cold.
• Jupiter boasts the largest number of natural satellites, followed by Saturn. Most planets exhibit magnetic fields extending into space, known as Magnetosphere, while the Sun’s magnetic field, called Heliosphere, envelops the entire solar system.
• The Moon is Earth’s only natural satellite, following an elliptical orbit. Due to its nearly synchronous rotation and revolution periods, only one side of the Moon is visible from Earth.
• Lunar eclipses occur when the Earth positions itself between the Sun and the Moon, happening exclusively on a full Moon day.
• Solar eclipses take place when the Moon positions itself between the Sun and the Earth, occurring only on a new Moon day. However, not every new Moon day witnesses a solar eclipse due to the inclination of the Moon’s orbital plane concerning Earth’s orbital plane. On January 3rd, the Sun is closest to Earth, while on July 4th, the distance is at its maximum. These conditions are termed perihelion and aphelion, respectively.
• The Sun is directly overhead at the Equator on two specific days each year, namely, March 21st and September 21st, known as equinox.
• When the Sun is positioned over the Tropic of Cancer, it marks the Summer Solstice, providing the Northern hemisphere with the longest day and shortest night. Conversely, when the Sun is overhead the Tropic of Capricorn, it denotes the Winter Solstice, giving the Southern hemisphere its longest day.

Geomorphology

• The Earth is composed of various concentric layers: the outer layer is the crust (light solid), followed by the mantle (semi-liquid), and the innermost layer is the core (dense solid).
• O Schmidt proposed that the Earth originated from gases and dust particles.
• Water has a higher specific heat than the land surface.
• The temperature inside the Earth rises with depth at a rate of 1°C for every 32 meters. Consequently, the core of the Earth’s interior experiences very high temperatures.
• Despite the high temperature, the core remains in a solid state due to the immense pressure at such depths, which raises the melting point beyond the prevailing temperature.
• The lithosphere, which constitutes the Earth’s crust, is divided into two parts. The upper part is thicker but less dense (mafic) material, such as granite, forming continents with an average density of 2.7. Dominated by silica and alumina, this layer is termed SiAl.
• The lower part is a continuous zone of denser basaltic rocks (felsic) forming ocean crust, primarily composed of silicon, iron, and magnesium, and is thus referred to as the SiMa layer.
• The mantle extends to a depth of 2900 km, constituting 68% of the total volume and 83% of the total mass of the Earth.
• Composed of silicate rocks rich in iron and magnesium compared to the overlying crust.
• Core of the Earth’s interior spans from the lower boundary of the mantle at a depth of 2900 km to the Center of Earth (up to 6371 km).
• Mainly made up of Fe (Iron) and Ni (Nickel), termed the NiFe layer. However, the upper core is not entirely solid like the inner core.
• Volcanism involves the eruption of magma, along with other gases and liquids, from the heated interior to the surface through fissures.
• Associated with two major zones: along divergent plate margin (Mid-oceanic ridges) and along subduction zone/benioff zone.
• The opening of a volcano is called a vent, and the fissure is termed a vent pipe.
• Volcanoes are categorized as active, dormant, and extinct. Mount Vesuvius, Mount Etna, Mount Krakatau, Mount Pelee, etc., are active volcanoes. Caldera or Crater lakes are associated with volcanism.
• The Mercalli scale measures earthquake intensity on levels ranging from 1 to 12, and earthquake magnitude depends directly upon the amplitude of earthquake waves measured by the Richter scale.
• The peninsular region of India is considered a zone of minimum earthquake intensity, and earthquake-generated waves are called seismic waves.
• Seismic waves are classified into three types (UPSC 2023):
  • Primary waves (P waves) are waves of short wavelength and high frequency, longitudinal, and can travel through solid, liquid, and gases. They are the first to be detected on a seismograph.
  • Secondary waves (S waves) are waves of short wavelength and high frequency, transverse, traveling through all solid particles but not liquid.
  • Surface waves or Love waves (L waves), named after Augustus Edward Hough   Love, are waves of long wavelength, confined to the skin of the Earth’s crust.

UPSC 2023

Q. Consider the following statements:

1. In a seismograph, P waves are recorded earlier than S waves.

2. In P waves, the individual particles vibrate to and fro in the direction of wave propagation whereas in S waves, the particles vibrate up and down at right angles to the direction of wave propagation.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. 1 only

2. 2 only

3. Both 1 and 2

4. Neither 1 nor 2

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 3 : Both 1 and 2

• Body waves, emanating from the release of energy at the focal point, propagate in all directions within the Earth’s interior.
• Two categories of body waves exist, namely P and S-waves.

P-waves:

P-waves, or primary waves, exhibit a faster movement and are the initial arrivals at the surface. Similar to sound waves, P-waves traverse gaseous, liquid, and solid materials. Characterized by a back-and-forth motion of particles parallel to the direction of wave propagation.

S-waves:

S-waves, also referred to as secondary or shear waves, reach the surface with a delay. These waves exclusively travel through solid materials, showcasing their unique property.

Seismograph:

In a seismograph, P waves are registered prior to S waves. P waves, known as primary or compressional waves, are the swiftest seismic waves, traversing both solids and liquids. Their arrival at a seismograph station precedes the slower S waves.

Consequently, in a seismograph recording, P waves precede S waves, confirming statement 1.

• P waves are recorded earlier than S waves in a seismograph. In P waves, particles vibrate to and fro in the direction of wave propagation, while in S waves, particles vibrate up and down at right angles to the direction of wave propagation.
• Igneous rocks form through the cooling, solidification, and crystallization of hot and molten magma, referred to as primary rocks as all other rocks are formed directly or indirectly from igneous rocks.
• Sedimentary rocks result from the aggregation and compaction of sediment, composed of material derived from older rocks, plants, animals, and containing fossils.
• Metamorphic rocks are altered forms of igneous and sedimentary rocks, changing either in form or composition without disintegration.
• Three major landforms include mountains, plateaus, and plains, with percentage-wise distribution as follows: plains (41%), plateaus (33%), hills (14%), and mountains (12%).
• Fold mountains form due to compressive forces generated by endogenetic forces and are found along convergent plate margins and geosyncline regions (e.g., Rockies, Andes, Himalayas).
• Block mountains form when large blocks of the Earth’s crust are raised or lowered due to tectonic activities or tensional forces (e.g., Black Forest, Vosges).

Atmosphere

• The Earth’s atmosphere is a dense gaseous layer extending up to 1600 km in all directions, tethered to the Earth by the force of gravity.
• Approximately 97% of the effective atmosphere is contained within a height of 29 km from the Earth’s surface.
• The atmospheric composition comprises 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.04% carbon dioxide, along with traces of rare gases, water vapor, and dust particles.
• The atmospheric water vapor content is influenced by evaporation, with a decrease from the Equator to the poles. Vapor is nearly transparent to incoming short waves but absorbs outgoing terrestrial radiation, functioning as a greenhouse gas.

UPSC 2012

Q. The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air is slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere, because it Absorbs

1. the water vapour of the air and retains its heat

2. the ultraviolet part of the solar radiation

3. all the solar radiations

4. the infrared part of the solar radiation

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : the infrared part of the solar radiation

• The gradual rise in atmospheric temperature is attributed to the growing concentration of carbon dioxide, which absorbs the infrared segment of solar radiation. Notably, water vapor possesses the unique capability to absorb both incoming ultraviolet (UV) and outgoing infrared radiation, setting it apart. Therefore, option 4 stands as the correct choice.
• Carbon dioxide exhibits a robust absorption of energy at a wavelength of 15 micrometers (um). This characteristic makes carbon dioxide an effective absorber of wavelengths within the infrared radiation segment of the spectrum.
• The atmosphere, categorized by temperature, comprises troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Weather events primarily occur in the troposphere due to dust particles and water vapor.
• Mesosphere absorbs most meteorites, while the thermosphere houses the ionosphere, crucial for communication and shielding Earth from electromagnetic radiation, forming the Van-Allen belt.
• In the troposphere (up to 16 km over the Equator, 8 km over the pole), temperature decreases with height; in the stratosphere (up to 50 km), it increases with altitude.
• Mesosphere (up to 80 km) experiences decreasing temperature with altitude, while the thermosphere (beyond 80 km) sees a rapid increase. The exosphere, not beyond 2000 km, is a low-density region due to extreme temperature (55,000°C).
• Earth’s air masses create four significant pressure belts: Equatorial low, Sub-tropical high, Sub-polar low, and Polar high pressure belts.
• The Equatorial low pressure belt, situated on both sides of the geographical Equator between 5°N and 5°S, shifts seasonally with the Sun’s migration, leading to trade winds.
• The Sub-polar low pressure belt (60-65° in both hemispheres) induces temperate cyclones and frontogenesis.
• Sub-tropical high pressure belt causes major deserts along the West coast.
• Wind, the horizontal movement of air from high to low pressure, plays a crucial role.
• Geostropic wind blows parallel to isobars at 600 m height.
• The Coriolis force, resulting from Earth’s rotation, deflects all winds to the right in the Northern hemisphere.
• In the Southern hemisphere, winds are deflected left due to Earth’s rotation, known as Farrel’s Law.
• The Westerlies, permanent winds from sub-tropical high to sub-polar low pressure belts, flow South-West to North-West in the Northern hemisphere and North-West to South-East in the Southern hemisphere (UPSC 2011).

UPSC 2011

Q. Westerlies in the southern hemisphere are stronger and persistent than in the northern hemisphere. Why?

1. Southern hemisphere has less landmass as compared to the northern hemisphere.

2. Coriolis force is higher in the southern hemisphere ascompared to the northern hemisphere.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. 1 only

2. 2 only

3. Both 1 and 2

4. Neither 1 nor 2

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 1 : 1 only

• The Southern Hemisphere exhibits a smaller landmass in comparison to the northern hemisphere.
• In the Northern Hemisphere, approximately 40% of the surface is landmass, while about 60% is covered by water.
• Contrarily, the Southern Hemisphere’s surface comprises around 20% landmass, with water covering the remaining 80%.
• Westerlies are prevailing winds found in midlatitudes, blowing from the west. These winds, predominant between 35 and 65 degrees latitude, are strongest in winter due to low pressure over the pole and weakest in summer when the polar high strengthens the polar easterlies. In the Northern Hemisphere, they primarily come from the southwest, while in the Southern Hemisphere, they originate from the northwest. The Southern Hemisphere’s westerlies experience greater strength due to the lesser land in middle latitudes, resulting in less north-south orientation and increased friction or drag, ultimately slowing them down.
• The deflection of circulating air, caused by the Earth’s rotation, is known as the Coriolis effect. In the Northern Hemisphere, the deflection is to the right, while in the Southern Hemisphere, it is to the left. This deflection is influenced by both the air’s speed and its latitude. Slow winds experience minimal deflection, whereas stronger winds are deflected more. The Coriolis force is zero at the equator and maximum at the poles. Therefore, statement 1 is correct, while statement 2 is not correct.
• Polar winds are North-Easterly in the Northern hemisphere and South-Easterly in the Southern hemisphere.
• The specific heat of water is higher than land, causing oceans/seas to heat and cool later than nearby land, creating thermal differences and generating local winds called Breeze.
• During the day, sea breeze flows towards land; at night, land breeze flows towards the sea due to relatively low pressure. Sea breeze is stronger than land breeze.
• Spreading finely ground basalt rock on farmlands as a carbon capture and sequestration method is known as Enhanced Weathering 

UPSC 2023

Q. Consider the following activities:

1. Spreading finely ground basalt rock on farmlands extensively

2. Increasing the alkalinity of oceans by adding lime

3. Capturing carbon dioxide released by various industries and pumping it into abandoned subterranean mines in the form of carbonated waters

How many of the above activities are often considered and discussed for carbon capture and sequestration?

1. Only one

2. Only two

3. All three

4. None

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 3 : All three

• Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) is the process of capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from diverse sources and either storing or utilizing them to mitigate their impact on the atmosphere.
• Enhanced weathering involves spreading finely ground basalt rock on farmlands, capturing and sequestering carbon dioxide through natural mineralization. When basalt reacts with CO2, stable carbonates are formed, providing an effective method for carbon capture and sequestration. Therefore, statement 1 is correct.
• Ocean alkalinity enhancement, which aims to increase the alkalinity of seawater by adding substances like lime, enhances the ocean’s capacity to absorb and store carbon dioxide. By elevating alkalinity, the oceans can potentially function as a carbon sink, contributing to climate change mitigation. Thus, statement 2 is correct.
• Carbon capture and storage (CCS) involve capturing CO2 emissions from industrial sources, such as power plants or factories, and injecting them into abandoned mines in the form of carbonated water. This method, considered an effective approach, stores carbon underground in suitable geological formations, including abandoned mines. Hence, statement 3 is correct.
• The Monsoon climate is characterized by the seasonal reversal of winds (UPSC 2020).
• Due to more land mass in the Northern hemisphere, there is an obstruction in the flow of Roaring Forties (UPSC 2000).
• Cyclones are low-pressure centers with closed isobars, inducing inward air circulation. In the Northern hemisphere, air flows inward anti-clockwise; in the Southern hemisphere, it flows inward clockwise (UPSC 2002).
• Cyclones are mainly tropical or temperate. Tropical cyclones move East to West in the Easterly wind belt, forming only over oceans. Temperate cyclones move West to East embedded in the Westerly wind belt, forming over continents or oceans. Fronts are associated with temperate cyclones.
• In the South Atlantic and South-Eastern Pacific regions in tropical latitudes, cyclones do not occur.
• Tornadoes result from low sea surface temperatures.
• Tornadoes are small but violent funnel-shaped storms, a rotating column of air with an upper portion resembling a cumulonimbus cloud.
• Thunderstorms are local storms with swift upward air movement, heavy rainfall, and atmospheric phenomena like thunder and lightning.
• Anti-cyclones, common in sub-tropical belts, have high pressure at the center, lowest at the outer margins, with circular isobars. Wind flows clockwise in the Northern hemisphere and anti-clockwise in the Southern hemisphere. They are associated with fair weather.
• The Jet Stream is a strong, rapidly moving Westerly air circulation in the upper troposphere, influencing tropical monsoon winds.

UPSC 2020

Q. Consider the following statements:

1. Jet streams occur in the Northern Hemisphere only.

2. Only some cyclones develop an eye.

3. The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone is nearly 10C lesser than that of the surroundings.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. 1 only

2. 2 and 3 only

3. 2 only

4. 1 and 3 only

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 3 : 2 only

• Jet streams are present in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Therefore, statement 1 is incorrect.
• While extra-tropical cyclones may not always exhibit an eye, mature storms typically possess well-developed eyes. Rapidly intensifying storms can form an exceptionally small, clear, and circular eye, often termed a pinhole eye. Hence, statement 2 is correct.
• Contrary to statement 3, the interior of the eye in a tropical cyclone is warmer, not colder. The elevated temperature within the eye is a driving force for the storm. Thus, statement 3 is incorrect.
• Humidity refers to water vapor content in the air, vital for various climatic phenomena like precipitation, storms, and turbulence.
• The equatorial region has the highest relative humidity.
• Dewdrops do not form on cloudy nights as clouds reflect Earth’s radiation (UPSC 2019).

Question 

• Geographical factors like condensation, high temperature, humidity, orography, and vertical wind contribute to thundercloud development. 
• Rainfalls come in three types: (1) Convectional rainfall from cumulus clouds due to thermal convection currents, common in equatorial regions with heavy, short-duration rainfall and atmospheric phenomena. (2) Orographic rainfall results from air ascent forced by mountain barriers on the windward side.
• The windward side of a slope receives the maximum rainfall, while the leeward side receives less.
• During rainfall on the windward slopes of mountains, cumulus clouds characterize the area, while the leeward slope features stratus clouds. This phenomenon can occur in any season.
• Cyclonic rainfall occurs due to upward air movement along the slope of a front in tropical regions.
• Tropical cyclones form when two extensive air masses with similar properties converge, leading to almost vertical air lifting and frequent convection.
• Equatorial Climate is marked by high temperature and humidity, featuring evergreen forests with diverse wildlife. The region is mostly inaccessible and predominantly inhabited by tribal communities. 

UPSC 2002

“Each day is more or less the same, the morning is clear and bright with a sea breeze; as the Sun climbs high in the sky, heat mounts up, dark clouds form, then rain comes with thunder and lightning. But rain is soon over.”

Which of the following regions is described in the above passage?

1. Savannah

2. Equatorial

3. Monsoon

4. Mediterranean

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 2 : Equatorial

• Equatorial Climate:
  • Equatorial climate regions host rainforests.
  • These areas experience consistent high temperatures and humidity throughout the year.
  • Temperature remains relatively constant with minimal variation.
  • The annual precipitation is substantial, characterized by frequent daily rainfall.
  • The equatorial climate is predominant in regions such as the Amazon basin in South America, the Congo basin in Africa, the Guinea coast in Africa, much of the Indo-Malaysian region, eastern Central America, certain Caribbean Sea islands, western Colombia, and eastern Madagascar.
• This climate type extends approximately 5 to 10 degrees on either side of the equator.
• Tropical Monsoon and Tropical Marine Climate are found between 5-30° latitudes on either side of the Equator, mainly in India, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Northern Australia. 
• Sudan or Savanna Climate, located between 5-20° latitude on either side of the Equator, is mostly found in the Llanos of Orinoco Valley, Campos of Brazil, hilly areas of Central America, and Southern Zaire.
• Hot Desert and Mid-Latitudinal Desert Climate are situated on the Western coasts of continents between latitudes 15°-30° N and S Latitude, lying on the sub-tropical high-pressure belt with extremely low relative humidity.
• Warm Temperate Western Margin Mediterranean Climate is found in California, parts of Western and South Australia, South-Western South Africa, and parts of Central Chile. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters.

UPSC 2010

Q. Consider the following statements

The functions of commercial banks in India include

1. Purchase and sale of shares and securities on behalf of customers.

2. Acting as executors and trustees of wills.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. 1 only

2. 2 only

3. Both 1 and 2

4. Neither 1 nor 2

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 3 : Both 1 and 2

• A commercial bank functions as a financial institution that solicits deposits from the public and extends loans for both consumption and investment, aiming to generate profits.
• The roles of commercial banks can be broadly categorized into two groups:
  • Primary functions
  • Secondary functions
• Primary functions encompass:
  • Accepting deposits
  • Providing loans and advances
  • Offering credit facilities
• Secondary functions encompass:
  • Discounting bills of exchange
  • Providing overdraft facilities
  • Facilitating payment and collection of credit
  • Engaging in the purchase and sale of securities. Therefore, statement 1 is accurate.
  • A bank serves as an Agent, Trustee, Executor, and Administrator for customers. Thus, statement 2 is correct.
• Trustee:
  • When a person wishes for a portion or the entirety of their property to be held in trust for specified beneficiaries after their death, they may create a trust under their will.
  • The bank, undertaking the responsibility to administer this type of property, is termed the trustee.
• Executor:
  • If a person expresses their intentions regarding the disposition of their property after death through a will, the person appointed to carry out the will is known as the executor.
  • A bank may be appointed as the executor for such services.
• Administrator:
  • In cases where a person passes away without a valid will, the property may be administered according to legal procedures.
  • The bank may be appointed to administer this property, in which case it is referred to as the administrator.
  • Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate is found in Pustaz of Hungary, Prairies of North America, Pampas of Argentina and Uruguay, and Bush Veld of South Africa, with very cool winters.

Hydrosphere

• The distribution of water in the hydrosphere, expressed as a percentage, includes oceans (97.6), saline lakes and inland seas (0.008), ice caps and glaciers (1.9), groundwater (0.5), soil moisture (0.01).The percentage distribution of water in the hydrosphere includes lakes (0.009), fresh water rivers (0.0001), and atmosphere (0.0009) (UPSC 2013).

UPSC 2013

Q. On the planet earth, most of the freshwater exists as ice caps and glaciers. Out of the remaining freshwater, the larges Proportion

1. is found in atmosphere as moisture and clouds

2. is found in freshwater lakes and rivers

3. exists as groundwater

4. exists as soil moisture

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 3 : exists as groundwater

• The Earth’s water distribution predominantly comprises seas and oceans, constituting over 97%, classified as saline water.
• The remaining portion is identified as freshwater.
• The descending order of freshwater distribution across various forms is as follows:
  • Snow caps, icebergs, and glaciers > Groundwater > Freshwater lakes > Atmosphere > Rivers
• The subsequent table illustrates the percentage allocation for each water reservoir:

Reservoir	Percentage
Oceans	97.20%
Ice Caps/Glaciers	2.00%
Groundwater	0.62%
Freshwater Lakes	0.01%
Inland seas/salt lakes	0.01%
Atmosphere	0.001%
Rivers	0.0001%

• The Pacific is the deepest ocean, hosting the Mariana Trench, while the Atlantic boasts the longest coastline. The Pacific is nearly circular, while the Atlantic is S-shaped. The Indian Ocean is unique as the only ocean named after a country and is deeper than the Atlantic. The continental shelf, a shallow seaward extension of continents with depths up to 200 m, has a smooth slope.
• Continental rises are steep slopes in oceans, tectonically originated, with no deposition, often featuring trenches near their foot limits as subduction zones. Ocean deeps are the deepest zones on ocean floors, located parallel to coasts facing mountains and islands. Examples include Mariana Trench and Mindanao Trench.
• Mid-oceanic ridges, continuous mountain chains of volcanic/tectonic origin, mark constructive plate boundaries where plates separate, magma erupts, and mountains form. They are most continuous in the Atlantic and present in every ocean.
• Ocean deposits include muds or terrigenous deposits from land on continental shelves, oozes or pelagic deposits from marine microorganisms, and clays, primarily red clays in deeper ocean basins, believed to accumulate volcanic dust.
• Salinity, the degree of saltiness, is often measured in parts per thousand. The main salts in oceans are sodium chloride and magnesium chloride (UPSC 2013). Isohaline is a line joining places with equal salinity. Lake Van has the highest salinity, and open seas have lower salinity than closed seas.
• Tidal range, the difference between high tide and low tide water, exhibits temporal and spatial variation.
• The Moon’s tidal force is most potent during perigee, causing high tides and playing a role in the evolution of amphibians and terrestrial animals.
• Ocean currents are categorized into warm currents, flowing from equatorial to poleward regions with higher surface temperatures, and cold currents, flowing from polar to equatorial regions with lower surface temperatures (UPSC 2015).

UPSC 2015

Q. Match List – I with List – Il and select the correct answer using the codes given-below the Lists

List – I	List – II
a. Gulf Stream	1. Pacific Ocean
b. West Wind	2. A slow east-Driftward movement of water over the zone of westerly wind
c. Peru Current	3. Indian Ocean
d. West Australian	4. Warm current

1. a – 4, b – 2, c – 1, d – 3

2. a – 1, b – 3, c – 4, d – 2

3. a – 4, b – 3, c – 1, d – 2

4. a – 1, b – 2, c – 4, d – 3

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 1 : a – 4, b – 2, c – 1, d – 3

Current	Description
Gulf Stream	The Gulf Stream is a strong ocean current that brings warm water from the Gulf of Mexico into the Atlantic Ocean. It extends up the eastern coast of the US and Canada. It is caused by a large system of circular currents and powerful winds, called an oceanic gyre.
West Wind	A current in the southern hemisphere moving from west to east at approximately 40°-55°S, caused by prevailing western cold winds. It encircles the earth, crossing the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans.
Peru Current	Also called the Humboldt Current, it is a cold-water current in the southeast Pacific Ocean, with a width of about 900 km (550 mi). It is relatively slow and shallow.
West Australian	It is a relatively cold surface current of the southeast Indian Ocean, part of the general counterclockwise movement in the southern section of that ocean.

• While ocean currents generally follow a regular pattern in all oceans, the North Indian Ocean current exhibits seasonal reversals, and the Eastern Pacific region occasionally experiences anomalies in ocean currents.
• Warm Atlantic currents include the Cayenne current, Florida current, Gulf current, North Atlantic drift, Brazilian current, while cold Atlantic currents include the Labrador current, Irminger current, Canaries current, Benguela current.
• Warm Pacific currents consist of the Kuroshio current, North Pacific drift, East Australian current, etc., while cold Pacific currents include the California current, Peruvian current, or Humboldt current.
• Warm Indian Ocean currents, such as the Agulhas current and Mozambique current, contrast with the cold West Australian current. The North Indian Ocean current undergoes seasonal reversals.
• The Sargasso Sea features an anticyclone circulation of oceanic currents, including the North equatorial current, Gulf stream, and Canary current, in the North Atlantic Ocean.
• Ocean currents consistently flow from East to West as Earth moves from West to East, especially near the Equator where the Coriolis force is negligible.

• Coral reefs, major biodiversity regions often referred to as marine rainforests, form in tropical waters and result from the accumulation and compaction of skeletons from lime-secreting organisms known as coral polyps.
• Coral reefs thrive in moderate temperatures (20°C to 21°C), requiring clean, sediment-free water to prevent clogging. Moderate salinity and the presence of a submarine platform are essential for their growth.
• The sequence of coral reef formation includes fringing reefs, barrier reefs, and atolls. Fringing reefs develop along continental margins or islands.
• The seaward slope of a reef is steep and vertical, contrasting with the gentle landward slope.
• Barrier reefs, exemplified by the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland, Australia, are partially submerged and separated from the coast by a wider and deeper channel or lagoon. They represent the most extensive and largest type of coral reef.
• Atolls are ring-pattern coral islands or reefs formed around a submarine platform or submerged island. The reefs grow while the mid-island submerges, creating circular reefs. Examples include the Maldive Islands and Lakshadweep Islands.
• Coral bleaching is the phenomenon where corals lose algae, resulting in a white coloration indicative of coral death.

Human Geography

• The three major racial groups worldwide are Caucasoids (Europeans and Americans), Mongoloids (Eastern Asian natives like those in China and Japan), and Negroids (Africans).
• Population distribution refers to the arrangement or spread of people in a given area, and it is uneven globally. Factors influencing population distribution include climatic conditions, availability of natural resources, soil quality, and means of transport and communication.
• Migration is classified into two types: Immigration involves incoming population to a country, while Emigration entails the departure of population from a country.
• The natural growth rate, excluding migration, determines population growth. Doubling time is the duration needed to double the population with a constant growth rate.
• Replacement level is the number of children required to maintain a country’s population without considering migration. This stands at about 2.1 children per female in More Developed Countries (MDCs) and 2.5 children per female in Less Developed Countries (LDCs).
• Total Fertility Rate represents the average number of children a woman has in her lifetime in a country, influenced by factors such as religion, culture, social values, and economic status.
• Demographic transition signifies the period when population change shifts from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates.
• It is occasionally linked with a demographic dividend when an exceptional workforce is added to the population through natural growth.
• The organization of the population into various age groups and its comparative analysis, considering gender variations, is termed a population pyramid.
• A stationary pyramid indicates low fertility and low mortality, while a stable pyramid reflects a consistent pattern of fertility and mortality.
• An expansive pyramid displays a broad base with a large number of children and a smaller number of older individuals. Such pyramids are prevalent in the least developed countries. In contrast, developed countries exhibit constructive pyramids with a narrow base or fewer children but a considerably larger older population.

Economic Geography

• Economic activities are categorized into primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary sectors.
• Primary activities involve the direct exploitation of primary resources, such as agriculture, mining, and fishing.
• Secondary activities include finishing and manufacturing, while the tertiary sector focuses on services.
• The quaternary sector encompasses administrative and planning functions.
• Nomadic herding, or pastoral nomadism, involves tribal communities living by primitive livestock rearing, highly dependent on the environment.
• Shifting cultivation is the subsistence farming practice of hill tribes.
• Commercial livestock rearing is more organized and capital-intensive than nomadic herding, associated with Western culture and practiced on permanent ranches.
• These ranches are large, fenced areas designed to regulate grazing.

• Major livestock ranching regions include Western USA, Sertao (Brazil), Pampas Uruguay, Argentina, and arid interiors of Australia.
• Subsistence agriculture focuses on self-sufficiency, with farmers growing enough food for themselves and their families.
• China holds the title of the largest producer of rice, followed by India, Indonesia, and Bangladesh.
• The highest rice yields are observed in Australia, followed by Egypt, the USA, and Spain.
• East Asia covers nearly 25% of total world area under rice, which contributes nearly 40% of total world production of rice.
• Tea is warm temperate zone crop and major tea varieties are black tea from India and Sri Lanka, green tea from China, Oolong tea from Taiwan and yerba mate from Paraguay.
• Horticulture is a major activity of Mediterranean region and most of the crops other than these plantations are grown in winter with the help of winter rain.
• Wheat, vineyards and citrus fruits are the major crops and the small animals are major livestock reared in the region.
• The most important cattle meat producing areas • are the Prairies, Steppes, the Pampas, the Veld of Africa, the downs of Australia and parts of New Zealand.
• The largest producers of beef in the world are USA, Brazil, China and Russia. The largest population of the pigs are found in China, USA and Brazil, China, USA and Germany are the leading producers of pork.

 Continental Geography

• Asia is the largest continent, covering approximately 30% of the Earth’s landmass.
• Mount Everest and the Dead Sea mark the highest and lowest points in Asia, respectively.
• Apart from the Indonesian islands, the entire continent is situated in the Northern hemisphere.
• Asia is intersected by the Equator, Tropic of Cancer, and Arctic Circle.
• It is separated from Europe by various geographical features, including the Ural mountains, Caspian Sea, Black Sea, Caucasus mountains, and the Strait of Dardanelles to the West.
• Asia boasts the world’s largest population, longest coastline, and deepest lake (Lake Baikal in Russia).
• It is also separated from North America by the Bering Strait.
• South-West Asia, also known as the Middle East, includes countries like Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, and Afghanistan.
• Southern Asia, referred to as the Indian subcontinent.
• South-East Asia comprises ASEAN nations.
• East Asia, often called the Far East, includes advanced regions like China, Japan, Taiwan, and Korea.
• Northern Asia includes the previous Russian Federation.
• High Asia encompasses Central Asian regions such as Tibet, Mongolia, and Sikiang.
• Hwang Ho (Yellow River):
  • Originates from Kunlun mountain
  • Among North China’s crucial rivers
  • Empties into the Gulf of Bo Hai in the Yellow Sea
• Red River:
  • Flows in Northern Vietnam
  • Across the Tonkin plain
  • Ends in the South China Sea
• Caspian Sea:
  • World’s largest lake
  • Five times larger than North America’s Lake Superior
  • Acts as a natural boundary between Europe and Asia
  • Bordered by Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Iran
  • Dast-e-Kavir, the world’s largest salt desert, is situated in Northern Iran
• Celebes Sea:
  • Located in Southeast Asia’s tectonically complex region
  • North of Sulawesi (Indonesia), East of Borneo, and South of the Philippine Islands
• Malaysia:
  • Global leader in tin production and export
  • Concentrated in Peninsular Malaysia, particularly in the Kinta Valley, Larut Plain, and Kalany Valley
• Central Asian Steppe Climate:
  • Experiences extreme temperature variations
• African Continent:
  • Often referred to as the Dark Continent
  • Spans from 37° N to 35° S latitudes
  • Major geographic lines, including the Equator, Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, and Prime Meridian, traverse the continent
• Great Rift Valley:
  • A significant physiographic region in Eastern Africa
  • While most lakes are within the valley, Lake Victoria is an exception
• Lake Victoria:
  • Africa’s largest lake
  • Third largest globally, after the Caspian Sea and Lake Superior
  • Located between Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania
• River Nile:
  • Formed by the confluence of Blue Nile and White Nile at Khartoum
  • Holds the title of the world’s longest river
• River Limpopo and River Congo:
  • River Limpopo crosses the Tropic of Capricorn twice
  • River Congo, Africa’s second-largest river, crosses the Equator twice
• South America:
  • Ranks as the fourth largest continent
  • Triangular in shape, spanning from 12°N to 55°S latitudes
  • Northern and middle parts crossed by the Equator and Tropic of Capricorn, respectively
• Highest and Lowest Points of South America:
  • Mount Aconcagua is the highest point
  • Valdes Peninsula is the lowest point
• Andes:
  • Holds the title of the world’s longest mountain range
• Amazon River Basin:
  • Includes major rivers like Amazon, Rio De la Plata, Orinoco, and San Francisco
  • Amazon, primarily in Brazil, with its largest tributary being the Madeira
• Amazon Basin Features:
  • Dense and impenetrable rainforests in the Amazon basin known as Selvas
  • Tropical grasslands north of the Equator along the Orinoco River called Llanos
  • Brazilian highlands south of the Equator known as Campos
• Pampas in Argentina:
  • Temperate grasslands with nutritious leguminous grass, Alfa-Alfa
  • Bolivia is a landlocked country
• Minas Gerais and Santos in Brazil:
  • Minas Gerais is notable in Brazil
  • Santos is referred to as the coffee port
• Gulf of Maracaibo:
  • Major petroleum-producing region in Northern Venezuela
• Trans-Andean Railways:
  • Runs across the Andes from Buenos Aires in the East to Valparaiso in the West
• North America:
  • Third largest continent, encompassing 16.5% of Earth’s landmass
  • Includes Canada, USA, Mexico, seven Central American states, and the West Indies
  • Tropic of Cancer, Arctic Circle, and 100° W longitude pass through
  • 49° parallel forms the Canada-USA boundary
• Highest and Lowest Points of North America:
  • Mount McKinley in Alaska is the highest point
  • Death Valley is the lowest point
  • Mount Logan in the Coast mountain is North America’s highest peak
  • Mount Whitney in the Cascade range is the highest peak in the USA
• Geographical Separation:
  • North America separates from South America through the Panama Canal
  • Separated from Asia by the Bering Strait
• Population and Coastline in Canada:
  • Coastal and southern parts of Canada are densely populated
  • Canada boasts the longest coastline
• Mississippi-Missouri River System:
  • Originates from Red Rock in Montana
  • Flows into the Gulf of Mexico, forming a Bird’s foot delta at its mouth
• Major Lakes in Canada:
  • Great Bear Lake, Great Slave Lake, Athabasca Lake, and Winnipeg are significant lakes
• Athabasca Lake and Uranium City:
  • Uranium City is situated on the North Shore of Athabasca Lake
  • Saskatchewan River flows into Winnipeg Lake
• European Continent Overview:
  • Second smallest continent, three times the size of India but smaller than China
  • Spans from 35°N to 80°N latitudes
  • Known as the “Peninsula of Peninsula” due to numerous inlets creating peninsulas along the coast
• Mediterranean Sea:
  • Inter-continental sea separating Europe from Africa
• Balkan States and Scandinavian Countries:
  • Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, and Albania collectively referred to as Balkan states
  • Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark collectively known as Scandinavian countries
  • Reykjavik in Iceland is the northernmost capital city in Europe
• Highest and Lowest Points of Europe:
  • Mount Elbrus is the highest point
  • Caspian Sea represents the lowest point
  • The Alps separate France and Italy, while the Pyrenees separate France and Spain
• Australia Overview:
  • World’s largest island and smallest continent
  • Spans from 10°S to 40°S latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere
  • Tropic of Capricorn divides the continent into halves
• Highest and Lowest Points:
  • Mount Kosciuszko is the highest point
  • Lowest point is Lake Eyre
• Great Barrier Reef:
  • Largest coral reef globally, located off the Queensland coast
• Temperate Grasslands and Canterbury Grassland:
  • Downs, the temperate grassland, is in the Murray-Darling basins in the southeastern part of Australia
  • Canterbury grasslands are found in New Zealand
• Gold Mining Centers:
  • Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie serve as significant gold mining centers globally
  • Broken Hills in New South Wales is known for lead, zinc, and silver mines
  • Mount Isa and Weipa are rich in lead and bauxite, respectively
• Great Victoria Desert:
  • Barren, arid, and sparsely populated desert ecoregion in Southern Australia

Indian Geography

Indian Physiography

• India, located in the tropical region of the Northern hemisphere, spans between latitudes 8°4’N and 37°6’N, and longitudes 68°7’E and 97°25’E. Its quadrangular shape measures 3214 km in North-South extension, just 281 km larger than the West-East extension (2933 km).
• As the seventh largest country globally, India covers approximately 32.8 million sq km, constituting 2.4% of the total global area—comparable to Europe, excluding Russia. Moreover, it holds the second position in terms of population, with about 121.06 crore people, accounting for 17.5% of the world population.
• India boasts a coastline stretching 7516.6 km along its total land frontier of 15200 km. The Tropic of Cancer intersects almost the middle of the country, traversing states such as Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, and Mizoram.
• Bangladesh shares the longest boundary with India, followed by China, Pakistan, Nepal, Myanmar, Bhutan, and Afghanistan. Among them, Bangladesh, Nepal, and China share borders with the maximum number of Indian states, each having five connections, while Myanmar, Pakistan, and Bhutan also share significant boundaries. border with four states each and Afghanistan connect only to Ladakh with about 106 km land boundary whereas Sri Lanka shares water boundaries, Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar with India.
• Though Indian physiography is broadly comprised of triple tectonic division viz, the Himalayan mountains, the Indo-Gangetic plains/North Indian plains and the Indian Peninsula besides the smaller sub-divisions of the coastal plains and the islands.

The Great Himalayan ranges are formed of UPSC 1994 parallel fold ranges.

• The Himalayas is one of the youngest fold mountain ranges in the world of tectonic origin and comprises mainly of sedimentary rocks. It stretches from the Indus river in the West to the Brahmaputra river in the East.
• The total length is about 2500 km with varying width of 240 to 320 km and a total area of 500000 sq km. They consist of three parallel ranges such as Himadri (greater Himalaya), Himachal (lesser Himalaya) and Shiwaliks (outer Himalaya).
• The Himadri, also known as the Greater Himalayas, boasts an average elevation of 6100 m and is home to some of the world’s highest peaks and crucial passes like Jelep La in the Chumbi valley in Sikkim and Shipki La in the Sutlej valley. Mount Everest, the world’s highest peak, is situated in Nepal.
• The Himachal, or Lesser Himalayas, maintains an average height ranging from 3700 to 4500 km. Notable ranges within this region include Dhauladhar, Pir Panjal, and Nag Tibba in Mussoorie. Key hill resorts such as Shimla, Ranikhet, Almora, Nainital, and Darjeeling, along with valley plains or Doons, are distinctive features along the outer Himalayas.
• The Outer Himalaya, or Shiwaliks, is a relatively recent formation with an average elevation of 900 m-1200 m, displaying a hog-back appearance with a steeper slope towards the South.
• To the North of the Greater Himalayas, bordering Tibet, lies the Trans-Himalayan zone. Significant ranges within this zone include Karakoram, Ladakh, and Zanskar. It constitutes the largest snow field outside the polar region, with the Siachen glacier situated to the North of Nubsa valley in Eastern Karakoram.
• The Great Plains of India form an aggradational plain, shaped by the alluvial deposits of the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra, along with their tributaries. Stretching from West to East for 2400 km, it varies in width between 150 and 500 km, with an average elevation of 150 to 300 m.
• Bhabar Plains, along the foothill of Shiwalik, composed of large gravels and unassorted sediments, where streams disappear, and dry beds are unsuitable for agriculture.
• Terai Plains, south of the Bhabar zone, featuring gentle slopes and marshy tracts due to the reappearance of streams. It is characterized by thick forests, abundant wildlife, and a favorable climate.
• Bhangar Plains, formed of older alluvium above the flood limit, generally rich in concretions and kankars, making it fertile.
• Khadar Plains, comprised of younger alluvium of flood plains enriched by fresh siltation every year, suitable for agriculture.
• The Delta Plains Extension of the Khadar plains, located near the river mouths, is prone to flooding. The Ganga plains can be categorized into four meso regions based on regional characteristics.
• The Rajasthan Plain, also known as Thar or the Great Indian Desert, is the westernmost region of the Great Indian plain. The semi-arid plain to the east of the Thar desert is referred to as Rajasthan Bagar. The Luni River is the sole south-west flowing river in this region.
• The Indus Plain, also called the Doab region, is formed by the deposits of the Indus and its tributaries. It is separated from the Ganga plain by the Delhi ridge and extends up to 640 km from north-east to south-west.
• The Ganga Plain stretches from Delhi to Kolkata across the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. The Ganga and its tributaries deposit a significant amount of alluvium, enriching this extensive plain.
• The Brahmaputra Plain, a low-level plain formed by the Brahmaputra river system, is situated between the Eastern Himalaya in the north and the lower Ganga plain and Indo-Bangladesh border in the west. It is flood-prone, and Majuli, the largest riverine delta, is located here. Both the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers culminate at the Sundarban delta, the largest delta in the world.
• The Sahyadris or Western Ghats are block mountains created by the downwarping of a part of the Peninsula into the Arabian Sea. They form the true watershed of the Peninsula, running parallel to the western coast for 1600 km from the mouth of the Tapi River to Cape Comorin. Up to 16°N, the Sahyadris exhibit a typical Deccan trap structure and gradually increase in elevation towards the south.
• The Eastern Ghats consist of detached hills, primarily composed of Khondolite rocks, and serve as the watershed between west-flowing rivers (Machkund, Sieru, Indravati, etc.) and east-flowing rivers (Vamsadhara, Nagavali, etc.). The Shevaroy hills in Tamil Nadu are part of the Eastern Ghats.

UPSC 2007

Q. Consider the following rivers :

1. Brahmani

2. Nagavali

3. Subarnarekha

4. Vamsadhara

Which of the above rise from the Eastern Ghats?

1. 1 and 2

2. 2 and 4

3. 3 and 4

4. 1 and 3

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 2 : 2 and 4

River	Description
Brahmani	The Brahmani is a significant seasonal river in the Odisha state of eastern India. Formed by the confluence of the Sankh and South Koel rivers near Rourkela, it, along with the Baitarani River, forms a large delta before emptying into the Bay of Bengal at Dhamra.
Nagavali	Also known as Langulya, the Nagavali River is a major river in Southern Odisha and Northern Andhra Pradesh States in India, situated between the Rushikulya and Godavari basins. Originating in Kalahandi District in the Eastern Ghats, it flows eastward and joins the Bay of Bengal.
Subarnarekha	The Subarnarekha River originates from the Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand, marking the boundary between West Bengal and Odisha in its lower course. It flows into the Bay of Bengal, forming an estuary between the Ganga and Mahanadi deltas, with a total length of 395 km.
Vamsadhara	An east-flowing river originating in the Kalahandi district of Odisha, Eastern Ghat, the Vamsadhara flows through Odisha along its boundary with Andhra Pradesh. It eventually joins the Bay of Bengal at Kalingapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, serving as the main river for the northeastern Andhra region. The Boddepalli Rajagopala Rao Project was constructed on it to meet the irrigation needs of the region.

Indian Drainage System

• India is endowed with numerous sizable and petite rivers that traverse the entire expanse of the country. These river basins are categorized into three distinct groups.
• Major River Basins, with catchment areas up to 20,000 sq km and above, contribute to 85% of the total runoff and comprise 14 basins in India, including the Subarnarekha basin with 19,296 sq km.
• Medium River Basins, with catchment areas ranging from 2,000 to 20,000 sq km, account for 7% of the total runoff from all rivers and consist of 44 basins in India.
• Minor River Basins, with catchment areas up to 2,000 sq km, contribute 8% to the total runoff across 55 basins in India.
• On a physiographic basis, the Indian drainage is classified into the Himalayan drainage and the Peninsular drainage. The Himalayan drainage system encompasses the basin areas of the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra rivers, characterized by perennial and youthful features such as gorges, V-shaped valleys, and depositional features like deltas.
• The River Indus flows through Ladakh and the Zanskar range, with Gilgit as its right-bank tributary. Chenab, the largest tributary of the Indus, originates at Bara-lacha La pass and is fed by the Bara Shigri glacier.
• The Ganga river enters the plain at Haridwar, with more tributaries in the Avadh plain compared to the Rohilkhand plain. The Bhagirathi and Alaknanda converge at Devprayag, taking the name of River Ganga thereafter.
• The Brahmaputra or Tsangpo flows through Tibet, India, and Bangladesh, forming the world’s largest delta in conjunction with the Ganga. Important tributaries include Subansiri, Kameng, Dhansiri, Dihang, Lohit, Tista, Manas, etc. The river is known as Sikiang in Arunachal Pradesh and Jamuna in Bangladesh.
• Mahanadi originates from Sihawa Mountain in the North foothills of Dandakarnaya.

UPSC 1998

Q. In the period of Mahabharat, the name of Mahanadi was

1. Kaveri

2. Tapti

3. Mahananda

4. Ganga

5. None of these

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 5 : None of these

• Mahanadi River, the third largest in peninsular India, holds a prominent place after Godavari and Krishna, claiming the title of the largest river in Odisha state. Its extensive catchment area encompasses Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Jharkhand, and Maharashtra. Originating near Sihawa, close to Raipur in Chhattisgarh, south of Amarkantak, Mahanadi has been known by various names such as Kanak Nandini, Chitropala, Nilotpala, Mahananda, Mahanadi, or Mahashweta at different periods. Vayu Puran refers to it as Nilotpala, while Matsya Puran names it Chitropala.
• Bounded by the Central India hills to the north, the Eastern Ghats to the south and east, and the Maikala range to the west, Mahanadi’s basin is geographically diverse. The Seonath, Hasdeo, Mand, and Ib rivers join Mahanadi from the left, while the Ong, Tel, and Jonk rivers join from the right.
• Notably, the river hosts major dams and projects, with the Hirakud Dam standing out as the longest dam in India.
• Godavari originates from the Trimbak plateau of North Sahyadri near Nashik, forming the boundary between Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.
• Krishna originates north of Mahabaleshwar in the Western Ghats and, along with Godavari, forms the second-largest delta in India, with Kolleru lake situated in this delta.
• Cauvery rises in the Brahmagiri range in the Western Ghats and is the only perennial river in Peninsular India, causing disputes among Kerala and Tamil Nadu and karnataka. Cauvery forms a quadrilateral delta at its mouth.
• Tapi and Narmada, among the west-flowing rivers, traverse through rift valleys. Multai, situated in the Betul plateau, is the source of the Tapi, rising between the Satpura and Ajanta-Satamala hills. Narmada flows between the Vindhyan and Satpura ranges, while rivers like Ghaggar, Rupnarain, Medha, etc., exhibit inland drainage.

Indian climate 

• The unique climate of India is defined by its tropical location, the presence of the Himalayas, and the Indian Ocean. The southern region, below the Tropic of Cancer, experiences a tropical climate, while the northern region, above the Tropic of Cancer, has a warm temperate climate.
• The Northern Himalayan range in Central Asia acts as a protective barrier against the bitterly cold and dry winds of winter, creating a physical barrier for the rain-bearing South-West monsoon.
• The monsoon is the dominant factor in India’s climate, characterized by seasonal wind circulation that completely reverses its direction within the season. The South-West summer monsoon, originating from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, brings rainfall to the entire country. The upper air circulation, specifically the jet stream, influences the monsoon and overall climate in India. In the summer season, the easterly jet stream aids in the onset of the South-West monsoon, while its south branch in winter intensifies high-pressure centers over Northwestern India.
• According to the Jet Stream theory, the westerly jet stream during winter bifurcates over the Himalayan ranges, with its southern branch along the southern slopes intensifying high-pressure centers over Northwestern India in winter but shifting north with the onset of the monsoon.
• Tropical cyclones generated in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal during the South-West monsoon and retreating monsoon seasons impact the weather conditions of Peninsular India. Additionally, Western disturbances influence winter weather conditions over most of the Northern plains and Western Himalayan regions.
• La-Nina, the complete opposite of El-Nino, signals the onset of heavy monsoon showers in India. It manifests as an occasional narrow warm ocean current appearing along the Peru coast in December, displacing the normal Peru or Humboldt cold ocean current that typically flows over the region in regular years.
• Regions with Very High Rainfall, receiving 200 cm and above, encompass the North-East of India and the Western coast from Thiruvananthapuram to Mumbai.
• Regions with High Rainfall, receiving between 100 cm to 200 cm, include the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, significant parts of the Northern plains, and the East coasts.
• Regions with Low Rainfall, receiving between 50 cm to 100 cm, encompass a large part of Gujarat, Eastern Rajasthan, etc.
• Regions with Very Low Rainfall, receiving below 50 cm, include arid and semi-arid areas of Western Rajasthan, Kutch, and most of the Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir region.

Soil and Vegetation

• Soil constitutes the uppermost layer of the Earth’s surface, resulting from the weathering and disintegration of rocks and organic matter. It contains mineral substances in a soluble form essential for supporting plant growth.
• In tropical rainforests, the soil is notably rich in nutrients.

UPSC 2023

Q. Consider the following statements:

Statement-l: The soil in tropical rainforests is rich in nutrients.

Statement-II: The high temperature and moisture of tropical rain forests cause dead organic matter in the soil to decompose quickly.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

1. Both Statement-I and Statement-Il are correct and Statement-Il is the correct explanation for Statement-I

2. Both Statement-I and Statement-Il are correct and Statement-Il is not the correct explanation for Statement-I

3. Statement-I is correct but Statement-Il is incorrect

4. Statement-I is incorrect Statement-Il is correct

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : Statement-I is incorrect Statement-Il is correct

• Tropical Rainforests thrive within the latitudinal belt between 23.5°N (the Tropic of Cancer) and 23.5°S (the Tropic of Capricorn), commonly referred to as the tropics.
• Geographically, these rainforests are distributed across Central and South America, western and central Africa, western India, Southeast Asia, the island of New Guinea, and Australia.
• Recognized for their dense vegetation and rich biodiversity, tropical rainforests exhibit a unique nutrient cycle where the majority of nutrients are held within living organisms rather than the soil.
• The nutrient cycle within these rainforests operates at a remarkable pace. Upon the death of an organism, the combination of high temperatures and moisture accelerates the decomposition process, swiftly releasing nutrients back into the ecosystem. Plants and other organisms promptly absorb these nutrients, leaving the soil relatively impoverished.
• Consequently, the soil itself remains nutrient-poor as the rapid nutrient turnover prevents their prolonged accumulation. This refutes statement (I).
• The warm and humid conditions of tropical rainforests contribute to the rapid decomposition of organic matter. This elevated temperature and moisture foster the activities of decomposers, including bacteria and fungi, supporting the correctness of statement (II).
• These decomposers play a crucial role in breaking down deceased plant and animal material, effectively recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem.
• Despite this efficient recycling process, the swift uptake of nutrients by living organisms restricts their retention in the soil, reinforcing the prevention of nutrient accumulation as explained earlier.
• The intricate process of soil formation, known as pedogenesis, is heavily influenced by factors such as the nature of the parent rock, relief features, climatic conditions, natural vegetation, and human activities. This process undergoes various stages.
• The horizontal layers of soil are referred to as horizons, and the vertical cross-section of the soil is termed the soil profile. Typically, the lowest horizon is formed by the bedrock or parent rock, immediately above which the D horizon is found, containing the accumulation of fresh parent material.
• Successively, there is the C horizon, serving as a zone of weathered parent material, followed by the B horizon, acting as a zone of illuviation or accumulation. Finally, the A horizon functions as a zone of eluviation or leaching.
• Above the A horizon, there is a layer of unsorted sediments and organic matter known as the O horizon. The A horizon, rich in organic matter, supports life.
• Oxisols, Ultisols, Vertisols, Alfisols, Spodosols, Mollisols, and Aridisols exhibit well-developed horizons with fully weathered minerals.
• Histosols contain a significant proportion of organic matter, while Entisols, Inceptisols, and Andisols either have poorly developed horizons or lack horizons altogether.
• The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) classifies Indian soil into seven major groups based on origin and physiographic character. In decreasing order, they are Alluvial soils (43.4%), Red soils (18.6%), Black soils (15.2%), Laterite soils (3.7%), Mountain soils, Desert soils, and Peat soils. Approximately 4 million hectares (1.21%) are under snow and glaciers.
• Alluvial soil, covering 142.5 million hectares of the total land area, is rich in potash, phosphoric acid, lime, and organic matter but deficient in nitrogen and humus content. Red soil, occupying 61 million hectares, lies on the periphery of the Peninsular plateau and lacks moisture retention.
• Black soil spans 49.8 million hectares and derives its black color from the presence of a small proportion of titaniferous magnetite or iron constituents of parent rocks. Suitable for cotton cultivation, it is rich in calcium, potash, and magnesium.
• The black cotton soil in India forms due to the weathering of fissure volcanic rock.

UPSC  2021

Q. The black cotton soil of India has been formed due to the

weathering of

1. brown forest soil

2. fissure volcanic rock

3. granite and schist

4. shale and limestone

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 2 : fissure volcanic rock

• Black Soil originates predominantly from volcanic rocks formed in the Deccan Plateau, specifically the Deccan and the Rajmahal trap, making option 2 the accurate choice.
• Characterized by its high clay content, typically exceeding 62 percent, black soil is notably argillaceous, indicating a significant presence of clay in its composition.
• Fertility levels vary between upland and valley black soils, with uplands generally exhibiting lower fertility and valley soils being highly fertile.
• The distinct black color of this soil arises from the inclusion of titaniferous magnetite or iron, along with black components inherited from the parent rock.
• Renowned for its moisture retention capacity, black soil swells considerably when saturated, posing challenges for cultivation during the rainy season due to its sticky nature, requiring substantial effort to work on.
• Laterite soil covers 12.2 million hectares in India, forming in areas with high temperature and rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods. These soils are low in NPK lime and magnesia and are characterized by excessive leaching of silica and iron on the upper surface.

Indian Population

• India holds the position of the second most populated country globally, following China, and accommodates a substantial 17.5% of the world population while occupying only 2.4% of the world’s geographical area.
• As per the Revisional Report of the UN, India is projected to surpass China as the most populous country by 2028, a shift from the earlier estimation of 2035.
• Over the past 130 years, India has consistently maintained a positive population growth rate, except for a single instance of negative growth in 1921, attributed to a demographic divide caused by an epidemic spread out. India’s demographic trend may be classified into four broad phases.
• Period of stagnant growth (1901 to 1921): This era witnessed a high birth rate offset by a correspondingly high death rate.
• Period of steady growth (1921 to 1951): Health improvements curtailed the mortality rate, although the birth rate remained exceptionally high. This phase is also known as mortality-induced growth.
• Period of rapid high growth (1951 to 1981): A significant decline in mortality rate characterized this period, but fertility levels remained remarkably high, earning it the moniker of the population explosion era.
• Period of high growth with definite signs of slowing down (1981 to 2011): The birth rate experienced a rapid decline alongside a continuing trend of diminishing mortality, marking this as the pre-stabilization phase.
• Population growth in India stems from two factors: natural increase, a result of births surpassing deaths, and positive growth due to in-migration, with rural-to-urban migration prevailing.
• The 2011 Census is the 15th in the series since 1872 and the seventh post-independence. The first comprehensive and synchronized census covering the entire country was conducted in 1881.
• The population density per square kilometer increased from 325 in 2001 to 382 in 2011. Bihar leads with a density of 1106, followed by West Bengal, Kerala, and Uttar Pradesh, while Arunachal Pradesh has the least population density at 17.
• Uttar Pradesh stands as the most populous state with over 200 million people, surpassing Brazil’s population. It is followed by Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh, with Sikkim having the lowest population, slightly exceeding 6 lakhs.
• The sex ratio in 2011 is 943, while the child sex ratio declined from 927 in 2001 to 919. Mizoram boasts the highest child sex ratio, followed by Meghalaya, while Haryana has the lowest, followed by Punjab.
• The literacy rate increased to 74.04% in 2011, with a more proportional rise in female literacy across all states and union territories, except Mizoram.
• The Scheduled Caste population increased by 20.8% from 2001 to 2011, comprising 16.6% of the total population. The Scheduled Tribe (ST) population comprises 8.6%, with a decadal growth of 23.7%.

Resources and Energy

• Resources can be broadly categorized into two types: human resources, which are the functional part, and natural resources, which form the fundamental part of the economy. Natural resources are directly obtained from the environment and are broadly classified into water resources, mineral resources, energy resources, and biotic resources or wildlife.
• Energy resources are further classified as renewable and non-renewable. Renewable resources are those with either an inexhaustible supply or the ability to be replenished through natural or human efforts. Non-renewable resources, on the other hand, are built over a long geological time span, and their formation rate is very slow.
• Based on their pattern of use, energy resources can be recognized as conventional sources (like coal, petroleum, natural gas, hydro energy, nuclear energy) and non-conventional sources (like solar, wind, etc.). In India, the natural resources for electricity generation are unevenly dispersed and concentrated in specific regions.
• For example, hydro resources are located in the Himalayan foothills and in the North-Eastern Region (NER). Coal reserves are concentrated in states like Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, and parts of Madhya Pradesh, while lignite is found in Tamil Nadu and Gujarat. The North-Eastern Region, Sikkim, and Bhutan have vast untapped hydro potential.
• The energy sector in India has a mix of thermal (68.14%), hydro (17.55%), nuclear (2.12%), and renewable (12.20%) sources based on installation capacity. Maharashtra is the highest producer of thermal energy, followed by Gujarat. India ranks fifth globally in hydro-electricity production, with Punjab having the highest share, followed by Karnataka.
• Some important renewable energy production sites include wind energy in Kanyakumari, geothermal energy in Manikaran (Kullu district), Puga Valley (Ladakh), and Taptapani (Odisha), wave energy in Vzhinjam (near Thiruvananthapuram) and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and tidal energy in Kandla (Gujarat) and Durga Kuani Creek (Sundarvan delta).
• Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Ladakh are identified as ideal areas for the development of solar energy.

Indian Agriculture

• Agriculture serves as the primary occupation in India, and the diverse physical and social conditions across the country give rise to various farming practices.
• Shifting Agriculture is embraced by tribal communities in the forested regions of North-East India, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, and Andhra Pradesh. In this agricultural approach, tribal people clear forest land by felling and burning trees for crop cultivation. It goes by different regional names such as Jhum in Assam, Onam in Kerala, Podu in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, and Penda, Beewar, etc., in Madhya Pradesh. Unfortunately, this practice significantly contributes to soil erosion in India.
• Subsistence Farming involves farmers cultivating small and scattered plots with the assistance of draught animals and family members.
• Commercial Farming represents a modern agricultural practice that relies more on advanced techniques, including High-yield Varieties (HYVs) and chemical fertilizers.
• Plantation Farming entails cultivating and processing a single cash crop intended solely for sale. This agricultural practice is predominantly observed in Assam, the sub-Himalayan region, West Bengal, and the Nilgiri, Annamalai, and Cardamom hills in the South.
• In India, three distinct cropping seasons occur each year—Kharif crops, Rabi crops, and Zaid crops. Kharif crops are dependent on the monsoon, Rabi crops are cultivated during winter, and Zaid crops are summer season crops.
• MS Swaminathan initiated the Green Revolution in the 1960s in the North-Eastern part of India, leading to a remarkable surge in foodgrain production.
• India is the second-largest rice producer globally, following China. Rice is a tropical crop requiring a mean temperature of 24°C and an annual rainfall of 150 cm. While West Bengal is the largest rice producer, Punjab boasts the highest productivity. However, the Tanjavur district in Tamil Nadu, situated on the Cauvery delta, holds the distinction of being the largest rice-producing district in the country.
• India holds the second position in global wheat production, serving as a staple food for the Northern and North-Western regions of the country.

UPSC 1994

• Bajra is a crop suited for dry and warm climates, thriving in areas with annual rainfall ranging from 40 cm to 50 cm.
• Cotton cultivation requires 210 frost-free days, and in Tamil Nadu, it is grown during both the kharif and rabi seasons. India holds the title of the largest cotton producer and the second-largest cotton exporter globally. The Deccan plateau, particularly Gujarat, leads in cotton production.

UPSC 2003

• India is the second-largest producer of sugarcane worldwide, trailing Brazil. Uttar Pradesh boasts the highest production, while Tamil Nadu holds the record for the highest productivity in the country.
• Tea, a tropical and sub-tropical plantation crop that thrives in shaded conditions, requires winter temperatures above 15°C and is susceptible to frost. It necessitates an annual rainfall of 150 cm to 250 cm throughout the year, and the soil should be well-drained.
• India is the second-largest producer of tea globally, following China, with most of it consumed within the country. Assam is the largest producer, followed by West Bengal and Tamil Nadu, while Karnataka leads in productivity.
• Coffee cultivation requires temperatures between 16°C to 28°C, along with rainfall ranging from 150 cm to 250 cm. Well-drained friable forest loams along hill slopes, at elevations from 600 m to 1500 m, are ideal for coffee cultivation.

Irrigation and Power

• Irrigation stands as a crucial part of infrastructure, vital for enhancing agricultural potential.
• Uneven distribution, uncertainty, irregularity, and the seasonal nature of rainfall highlight the necessity for irrigation in India.
• India employs three primary modes of irrigation: canal irrigation (40%), well irrigation (40%), tank irrigation (12%), and other sources (8%).
• The proportion of tank-irrigated land to the total irrigated land in the country has decreased from 14% in 1960-1961 to about 2.5% in 2014-2015, mainly due to the increase in well and tubewell irrigation.
• Tank irrigation is prevalent in Peninsular India, particularly in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan have the largest areas irrigated by wells, while canal irrigation dominates in Jammu and Kashmir (91.7%), Chhattisgarh (66.2%), and Odisha (64.7%).
• A multipurpose project is one that simultaneously serves various purposes, such as flood control, irrigation, hydroelectric generation, navigation, fishing, and tourism, among others.
• Some significant multipurpose projects include
  • Bhakra Nangal, situated on the Sutlej, is a collaborative effort among Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan for hydroelectricity and irrigation.
  • The Damodar Valley, located on the Damodar River under the Damodar Valley System Corporation, serves purposes of irrigation, flood control, and hydroelectricity. It encompasses four dams at Tilaiya, Maithon, Konar, and Panchet hills.
  • Hirakud Dam, situated on the Mahanadi in Odisha, serves the dual purpose of irrigation and hydroelectricity.
  • Kosi Dam, positioned on the Kosi River in Bihar, plays a role in flood control, irrigation, and hydroelectricity.
  • The Rihand Valley Project in Rihand (a tributary to the Son) in Uttar Pradesh is primarily focused on hydroelectricity.
  • Chambal Valley Project on the Chambal is a joint venture between Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, addressing the needs of irrigation and hydroelectricity.
  • Tungabhadra Dam, located on the Tungabhadra River, is a joint venture involving Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, serving purposes of irrigation and hydroelectricity.
  • Nagarjunasagar Dam, positioned on the Krishna River, is a joint venture of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, addressing irrigation and hydroelectricity needs.
  • Tehri Dam, situated on the Bhagirathi River in Uttarakhand, serves the purposes of flood control, irrigation, and hydroelectricity.
  • Sardar Sarovar Project, located on the Narmada River, is currently a subject of contention among environmentalists and social activists due to displacement issues.

Indian Industry

• The World Economic Forum has announced the establishment of its new center for the fourth industrial revolution in India.
• The center will be located in Maharashtra, making it the fourth in a global network that already includes centers in San Francisco (US), Tokyo (Japan), and Beijing (China).
• India currently holds the position of the 10th largest industrial country in the world. The journey of industrialization began with the textile industry in Mumbai in 1854, followed by the Jute Spinning Mill in Risra (Kolkata) in 1855, and the commencement of the iron and steel industry as the first heavy industry in Kulti in 1874.
• Industries in India are classified for administrative purposes into Public sector industries, where the government holds more than a 51% stake in the company, and private sector industries.
• On a functional basis, industries are also categorized into metallurgical, textile, heavy engineering, chemical and allied, petrochemical, and other sectors.
• There is a noticeable clustering and regional concentration of industries in India known as industrial belts.
• Six major industrial belts include the Mumbai-Pune industrial region, Kolkata-Hugli industrial region, Ahmedabad-Vadodara industrial region, Madurai-Abmepatore, Bengaluru industrial region, the Coimbatore-Nagpur plateau industrial region, and the Chhoura-Delhi-Saharanpur-Ambala region, a fast-developing belt due to the pull effect of the national capital.
• The first woollen textile mill was established in 1876 at Firspur Dhariwar, with Amritsar and Ludhiana being important centres for woollen textiles in Punjab.
• Cotton textile industries are primarily concentrated in Maharashtra, Gujarat, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh. The humid climate and the availability of black soil play a vital role in the development of cotton textile industries. The USA is the largest buyer of Indian cotton fabrics in the world.

UPSC 2014

• The first modern jute mill was established at Rishra near Calcutta in 1855. Nearly 90% of the jute industries are located in West Bengal, Odisha, and other regions like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Andhra Pradesh.
• After partition, major jute-producing regions went to Bangladesh (East Pakistan), causing a shortage of raw material for the jute industry in India.
• India produces all five known commercial varieties of silk: Mulberry, Tasar, Oak Tasar, Eri, and Muga. About 98% of the total production comes from Karnataka, West Bengal, and Jammu and Kashmir, with silk industries located in Karnataka and West Bengal.
• India produces almost half of its copper requirement, with the remaining being imported. Copper smelting occurs in Ghatsila (Indian Copper Corporation) and Khetri (Hindustan Copper Limited).
• The Malanjkhand mines in Balaghat district of Madhya Pradesh supplement the supply of copper ore to Khetri.
• Aluminium smelting industries are located in Korba (HINDALCO), Ratnagiri (BALCO), Mettur (MALCO), Damanjodi, and Koraput (NALCO).
• A turning point in this sector came in 1907 when TISCO was set up at Sakchi (Jamshedpur) by Tata.
• After independence, three new integrated steel plants were set up at Rourkela, Bhilai, and Durgapur under Hindustan Steel Limited with collaboration. Germany, Russia, and Britain established the foundations for the third, fourth, and fifth largest economies, respectively. During the third Five Year Plan, the Bokaro steel plant was established in collaboration with Russia.

• Cochin Shipyard Limited in Kerala stands as the largest shipbuilding site in India.

UPSC 2010

Transport and Communication

• India’s transportation system comprises rail transport, road transport, air transport, water transport, and portal connectivity. India boasts one of the world’s largest road networks, the largest railway system in Asia, and the second-largest globally. Despite being the oldest means of transport in India, water transportation remains underdeveloped.
• The Indian shipping industry constitutes only 0.95% of the total world fleet, contributing merely 1.07% to the world’s Gross Registered Tonnage (GRT) and handling 30% of the country’s bulk cargo.
• The Indian railways operate on a multi-gauge, multi-traction system, encompassing broad gauge (1676 mm), meter gauge (1000 mm), and narrow gauge (762/610 mm), covering approximately 64,600 km of routes.
• The first railway line in India commenced public operations in 1853, connecting Mumbai and Thane over a 34 km distance. Railway track electrification began in the early 1920s, with around 31.38% of rail lines electrified to date.
• UNESCO recognizes notable Indian railways, including the Darjeeling Himalayan Railways, Nilgiri Mountain Railways, Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, and Kalka-Shimla Railways.
• Konkan Railways, spanning from Mangaluru to Roha (40 km south of Mumbai), covers four states: Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala. Despite not passing through Kerala, it boasts India’s fastest track, totaling 762 km, with almost 10% passing through tunnels.
• In commemoration of Swami Vivekananda’s 150th birth anniversary, the Vivek Express holds the title of India’s longest train.
• Vande Bharat Express, India’s fastest indigenous train, also known as Train 18, operates between Delhi and Varanasi. Developed at the Integral Coach Factory, Chennai, it is the country’s first locomotive-less train.
• The Indian railway system consists of 18 zones, including the newly formed Southern Coast Railway headquartered in Visakhapatnam.
• The proposed Southern Coast Railway Zone will include the Guntakal, Guntur, and Vijayawada subdivisions currently under the South Central Railway.
• The Eastern corridor is slated for extension to the Kolkata region to link up with the proposed deep-sea port.
• The Nagpur plan of 1943 categorized roads into four types: national highways, state highways, district roads, and village roads. India’s road network ranks as the third largest globally.
• National Highways (NH), constituting about 2% of the road network, are built and maintained by the Central Public Works Department (CPWD) and handle 40% of the total traffic in the country. NH 4, spanning 1,235 km, passes through Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
• Air transport commenced in 1911 between Allahabad and Naini. The International Airports Authority of India merged with the National Airports Authority in 1995 to form the Airports Authority of India. The authority oversees the Civil Aviation Training College in Allahabad and the National Institute of Aviation Management and Research in Delhi.
• Major ports on the Eastern coast include Kolkata port, India’s oldest port with a two-dock system; Paradip port, specializing in iron ore and handling some coal and dry cargo; Chennai port, an all-weather port with deep-drafted berths, oil jetties, and iron ore terminals; Vishakhapatnam port, renowned for its exceptional performance as the deepest and well-protected port; Tuticorin port, an artificial deep-sea harbor, and Ennore port, the first corporatized major port in India.
• Major ports on the West coast encompass Mumbai port, the busiest with a natural harbor, predominantly handling petroleum and dry cargo; Kandla port, a tidal port managing crucial traffic such as crude oil, petroleum, edible oil, and foodgrains; Marmagao port, specializing in iron ore; and New Mangalore Port, an all-weather port.
• The modern communication system commenced with the Indian National Satellite System, now one of the largest communication systems in the Asia-Pacific region.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q: What are the key topics covered under the Geography section of UPSC Prelims 2024?

A: The Geography syllabus includes physical, human, economic, and social aspects. Topics range from geomorphology and climatology to regional geography and environmental issues.

Q: Which specific areas should candidates focus on while preparing for Geography in UPSC Prelims 2024?

A: Emphasis should be on world geography, Indian geography, map-based questions, and contemporary issues related to geography such as climate change, urbanization, and environmental conservation.

Q: How important are map-based questions in the Geography section of UPSC Prelims?

A: Map-based questions are crucial. Candidates should be well-versed in locating countries, rivers, mountain ranges, and important geographical features on the world map, as these questions are a common feature in the Prelims paper.

Q: How can candidates integrate current affairs into their Geography preparation for UPSC Prelims 2024?

A: Stay updated on contemporary issues related to geography, such as changes in international boundaries, geopolitical events, and environmental issues. This knowledge enhances the application of theoretical concepts.

Q: What are some recommended resources for Geography preparation in UPSC Prelims 2024?

A: Standard NCERT textbooks (Class 6 to 12), GC Leong’s “Certificate Physical and Human Geography,” and regular reading of newspapers for current affairs are highly recommended. Additionally, practicing map-based questions is crucial for success in this section.

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