UPSC NCERT Notes - Modern History - Towards Independence

As the dawn of the 20th century unfolded, the Indian subcontinent found itself amidst a fervent struggle for self-determination, marked by a series of events that would ultimately shape its destiny. This period, spanning from 1940 to 1947, witnessed a profound transformation in India’s political landscape, as the nation marched resolutely towards independence from British colonial rule. The tumultuous years leading up to independence were characterized by intense political negotiations, mass movements, and the emergence of visionary leaders who galvanized the masses in their quest for freedom. Through the lens of the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) and the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), this exploration delves into the intricate tapestry of modern Indian history, illuminating the pivotal milestones, ideological debates, and socio-political dynamics that shaped the course of the nation’s journey towards sovereignty.

Table of Contents

Introduction

Although India became t of independent on August 15, 1947, the country underwent partition, resulting in the creation of two separate nations, India and Pakistan.
This partition led to a tragic loss of lives, with thousands of people losing their lives during the process. The ideological concept of two distinct nations played a pivotal role in shaping the events that culminated in the partition of India.
The demand for the creation of Pakistan was formally articulated by the Muslim League, which passed a resolution during its Lahore Session in March 1940.

Major Events in Chronological Order (1940-47)

Events	Date/Year
Lahore Session of Muslim League	March, 1940
August Offer	August, 1940
Individual Satyagraha	October, 1940
Atlantic Charter	August, 1941
Cripps Mission	March, 1942
Quit India Movement	August, 1942
Establishment of INA	October, 1943
CR Formula	September, 1944
Desai-Liaquat Proposals	April, 1995
Wavell Plan	March, 1945
Simla Conference	June, 1945
Cabinet Mission	January, 1946
Interim Government	August, 1946
Royal Navy Mutiny	February, 1946
Formation of Constituent Assembly	July, 1946 (1st Meeting-9th December, 1946)

Lahore Resolution (1940)

The Lahore Resolution passed during the annual session of the All India Muslim League held in Lahore from 22nd to 24th March 1940, was a formal statement advocating the creation of a separate Muslim state. Zafarullah Khan drafted the resolution, proposing the establishment of an independent state based on a predominantly Muslim population.

Widely known as the Pakistan Resolution, it signaled the desire for the formation of Pakistan. However, some pro-United India Muslim organizations, like the All India Azad Muslim Conference, gathered in Delhi in April 1940, expressing their support for an independent and united India.

The Pakistan Resolution, passed on 24th March 1940 in Lahore, rejected the Federal scheme proposed by the Government of India Act, 1935.

The August Offer (1940)

Viceroy Lord Linlithgow presented the August Offer through a statement from Simla on 8th August 1940, aiming to secure Congress cooperation during the Second World War.
This proposal was notable as it marked the first time the British acknowledged the demand for a Constituent Assembly. Despite the British hope of gaining India’s support in the war effort, the Congress rejected the offer, considering it another attempt to deny India its inherent right to complete national freedom.

The Muslim League viewed the offer as progressive but expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of consultation with Indian political groups regarding the proposed expansion of the Viceroy’s Council.

The British objective of obtaining India’s cooperation through the August Offer turned out to be a significant failure.

The Individual Satyagrahas (1940)

Following the disillusionment caused by the August Offer, Gandhiji, after an extensive meeting with the Viceroy at Simla in September 1940, became convinced that British policies in India would not change. In response, he decided to initiate Individual Satyagraha to disprove the British claim that India wholeheartedly supported the war effort.
On 17th October 1940, Acharya Vinoba Bhave, chosen personally by Gandhiji as the first Satyagrahi inaugurated the campaign with an anti-war speech at Paunar. However, due to the limited enthusiasm it generated, Mahatma Gandhi suspended the campaign on 17th December 1940.
Jawaharlal Nehru became the second person to undertake Satyagraha after Vinoba Bhave, followed by Brahma Dutt, contributing to the Satyagraha Campaign. It was during Individual Satyagraha that Gandhi declared Nehru as his chosen successor. The campaign was also known as Delhi Chalo Satyagraha.

Atlantic Charter and India

Released on 14th August 1941, the Atlantic Charter was a crucial policy document outlining the Allies’ objectives for the post-war era.
The Charter emphasized self-determination and the restoration of self-government for those who had lost it. However, when it came to India’s right to self-determination, Churchill rejected its universal applicability, causing disappointment among Gandhi and the Congress.

Cripps Mission (1942)

As the situation in the Second World War deteriorated, with Germany invading Russia, pressure from President Roosevelt of the USA, President Chiang Kai-Shek of China, and the Labour Party leader of Britain compelled Churchill to seek the active cooperation of Indians in the war.
Therefore, a delegation led by Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the British War Cabinet and a left-wing laborite, was dispatched to India to revive the dialogue between Congress and other political parties, encouraging their participation in the British war efforts.

Clauses of the Cripps Mission

Sent to India in March 1942 during Winston Churchill’s tenure as the Prime Minister of Britain and Lord Linlithgow’s role as the Viceroy of British India, the Cripps Mission outlined several main clauses:
Granting Dominion status to India and allowing the option to opt out of the Commonwealth, providing the freedom to join any international bodies, including the United Nations.
Post-war, a Constituent Assembly would be established to formulate a new Constitution.
The assembly’s members would be chosen partly by provincial assemblies through proportional representation and partly nominated by the princes.

The British Government would accept the new Constitution under two conditions:

Provinces unwilling to join the Union could form a separate Constitution and a distinct Union.
The Constitution-making body and the British Government would negotiate a treaty to facilitate the transfer of power and protect racial and religious minorities.
During this transition, defense control of India would remain in British hands, and the Governor-General’s powers would remain unchanged.

Jawaharlal Nehru and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad served as the official Congress negotiators during discussions with the Cripps Mission. The Congress argued that meaningful change would not occur without the transfer of de facto power and responsibility.

The Congress Working Committee raised objections to the composition of the Constitution-making body, highlighting concerns that representatives from princely states would be nominated by rulers rather than elected by the people.
Regarding the provision on the non-accession of provinces to the Union, Gandhiji rightly criticized it as “an invitation to the Muslim League to create Pakistan.” In his overall assessment, he viewed the proposal as a post-dated cheque on a failing or collapsing bank.
The Muslim League pressed for a clear British declaration supporting the creation of a separate state for Muslims, along with seats on a 50:50 basis for the Muslim League and the Congress in the Interim Government.
The League rejected the Cripps offer on two grounds:
It did not acknowledge separate electorates for the Constitution-making body.
There was no clear acceptance of the demand for partition.
Indian Christians and Anglo-Indians sought additional safeguards for their communities. The British Government also declined the demand for an immediate transfer of effective power to Indians and a genuine share in the responsibility for the defense of India.

Quit India Movement or August Revolution (1942)

On July 14, 1942, the Congress Working Committee meeting in Wardha passed the Quit India Resolution, where Gandhiji urged the British to “leave India in God’s hand.”
On August 8, 1942, the Quit India Resolution was adopted by the All India Congress Committee in Gowalia Tank, Bombay, with Gandhiji introducing the slogan “Do or Die,” officially adopted on August 9.

Course of the Movement

The AICC meeting concluded around midnight on August 8, 1942. On the morning of August 9, Mahatma Gandhi, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, and other prominent Congress leaders were arrested by the police.
From August 9 to 13, 1942, widespread disturbances occurred in Bombay, Ahmedabad, Poona, Delhi, etc. These events over the four days in August 1942 became known as the Great August Uprising, during which a parallel government was established in Satara, Ballia, and Tamluk.
The resistance movement evolved into revolutionary activities, focusing on sabotaging communication networks and targeting police personnel.
Key figures in the underground movement included Achyut Patwardhan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Ram Manohar Lohia, Sucheta Kripalani, Chootubhai Puranik, Biju Patnaik, RP Goenka, and others.
In Bihar, Jaiprakash Narayan and Ramnandan Mishra joined the underground movement after escaping from Hazaribagh jail on November 9, 1942.
A significant achievement of the underground movement was the establishment of Congress Radio, with Usha Mehta serving as its announcer.
The general public engaged in acts of defiance against authority, forcibly hoisting national flags on public buildings.
Most intense activities occurred in Eastern United Provinces and Bihar. Students went on strike in schools and colleges, participating in processions, disseminating illegal news sheets (patrikas), and serving as couriers for underground networks.

Responses and Trend

The Quit India Movement garnered massive support from the people of Bombay, Andhra, Bihar, Gujarat, Orissa, Assam, Bengal, Karnataka, etc., while responses in Punjab, Sind, NWFP, etc., were relatively weak.
Congress was declared illegal, prompting the revival of the Congress Committee under different names like the Congress Workers Assembly or Representative Assembly of Congressmen, circumventing the ban on Congress Committees.

Youth, particularly students in schools and colleges, played a leading role.Women, including school and college girls like Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kripalani, and Usha Mehta, actively participated.

Workers initiated strikes and faced repression, while peasants across strata were central to the movement, even involving the participation of zamindars without any anti-zamindar violence.
Government officials, particularly those at lower levels in the police and administration, actively participated, leading to a decline in government loyalty.
Communal clashes were notably absent during the Quit India Movement. Muslims actively engaged in the mass movement and supported underground activists by offering them shelter.
Communists refrained from joining the movement; following the Nazi attack on Russia, the communists shifted their stance to support the British War against Germany, transforming the Imperialist War into the People’s War.
The Hindu Mahasabha boycotted the movement, and the response from princely states was subdued.

Reactions of Other Parties

The Muslim League maintained distance from the movement, but some members of the Muslim community provided support by offering shelter to underground workers. The Hindu Mahasabha condemned the movement.
The Communist Party of India opposed the movement, while the princes and landlords aligned with the British war effort and showed no sympathy for the movement.
Certain Congress members, such as Rajagopalachari and Bhulabhai Desai, abstained from participating. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar actively opposed the movement.

Government Repression

The government employed airplanes to quell unrest in various locations.
Numerous instances of lathi charges, beatings, and imprisonments were reported.
Gandhiji initiated a fast on February 10, 1943, while in jail, intending it to last for 21 days. Groups of people clandestinely reached Poona to undertake Satyagraha outside the Aga Khan Palace, where Gandhiji was detained.
The native state of Awadh, ruled by a pro-nationalist leader who had the constitution of his state drafted by Gandhiji, offered invaluable support by providing shelter to Prati Sarkar activists.

Parallel Government Established During Quit India Movement

Places	Rulers
Tamluk, Midnapur (West Bengal)	Jatiya Sarkar under Satish Samant
Talcher (Odisha)	Lakshman Nayak
Satara (Maharashtra)	Prati Sarkar under Nana Patil
Balia (Uttar Pradesh)	Chittu Pandey (first one to come into being)
	Chittu Pandey called himself a Gandhian

Subhash Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army (1942)

Born in 1897 in Cuttack, Odisha, Subhash Chandra Bose was a graduate of Calcutta University who studied Philosophy at Cambridge University and qualified for the Indian Civil Services. His political mentor was Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das.
While in jail in 1932, Bose was elected as the Mayor of Calcutta. In 1939, he defeated Gandhi’s nominee Pattabhi Sitaramayya to be re-elected as Congress President.
He passionately called for avenging the blood of Indian martyrs and using swords to liberate the motherland. Rabindranath Tagore regarded him as Deshnayak.
In January 1941, Bose founded the Forward Bloc, propagating anti-British sentiments from the Berlin Radio Station and raising free India units with Indian prisoners of war in Germany.

Indian National Army (INA)

Major Fujiwara, a Japanese Army Officer, persuaded Captain Mohan Singh, a prisoner of war, to collaborate with the Japanese for India’s freedom. Mohan Singh first conceived the idea of the Indian National Army in Malaya.
In March 1942, a conference of Indians was held in Tokyo, forming the Indian Independence League. Ras Behari Bose played a major role in its formation.
A subsequent conference in Bangkok (June 1942) elected Ras Behari Bose as President of the league and decided to raise the Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauj) to fight for India’s independence.
Bose resigned from the leadership of the Indian Independence League in favor of Subhash Chandra Bose, who was also named the Supreme Commander of the Indian National Army.
Returning to Singapore, Bose formed the Provincial Government of Free India (Azad Hind Sarkar) on October 21, 1943. In November 1943, the Japanese decided to hand over the administration of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to the Indian National Army.
The Japanese Government pledged full support to INA to enable India to achieve complete independence. Bose renamed Andaman and Nicobar as Shaheed and Swaraj.
In March 1944, the Indian National Army began its military offensive, advancing towards Assam through Burma and crossing the Indian frontier on March 18, 1944.
INA soldiers reached Kohima in Nagaland and captured it in May 1944. However, they failed to capture Imphal due to the Japanese’s failure to supply necessary materials and air cover and the onset of monsoon.
Meanwhile, the war turned against Japan, and British troops recaptured Rangoon in May 1945. INA troops were forced to surrender and made prisoners. Three months later, Subhash Chandra Bose died in an air crash near Taiwan in August 1945.
Subhash Chandra Bose established two Indian National Army headquarters in Rangoon and Singapore.
INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhiji, Azad, and Nehru. Additional brigades, such as the Subhash Brigade and the Rani Jhansi Brigade (the women’s brigade of the Indian National Army), were later formed.
Overseas Indians contributed significantly in terms of money and material.
Bose, in a broadcast on Azad Hind Radio, addressed Gandhiji as the Father of the Nation. Gandhiji returned the compliment by describing Subhash as The Prince among Patriots. The slogans of the Indian National Army were Jai Hind and Delhi Chalo.

Fall of the Indian National Army

Towards the end of the Japanese occupation, despite his best efforts, Subhash Chandra Bose could not prevent the falling morale in the Indian National Army.
Amid crackdowns on various mutinies that had started in various Indian National Army camps during August 1945, Bose received information that the Japanese forces were surrendering.

On 15th August 1945, Bose declared the end of the Indian National Army through a radio broadcast in Singapore.

Three days later, he allegedly died in an airplane crash.
Various Indian National Army soldiers were captured, with almost fifteen hundred being captured by the Allied forces in the Battles of Imphal and Kohima.

Red Fort Trial of INA Prisoners

The trial of Indian National Army prisoners began on 5th November 1945 at the historic Red Fort in Delhi. Some prominent Indian National Army officers put on trial were General Shah Nawaz, Gurdial Singh Dhillon, Prem Sehgal, etc.
The AICC, at its session held in Bombay from 21st to 23rd September 1945, adopted a strong resolution declaring its support for the cause of Indian National Army soldiers. The Congress organized an Indian National Army Relief and Enquiry Committee. Tej Bahadur Sapru, KN Katju, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Asaf Ali, under the leadership of Bhulabhai Desai, took up the defense of the Indian National Army prisoners in the trial.

C. Rajagopalachari Formula (1944)

In 1944, C. Rajagopalachari, who had resigned from the Congress in 1943, recognized the necessity of a settlement between the Congress and the Muslim League for India’s independence. He formulated a proposal to initiate talks with Jinnah.

The key components of this formula were as follows:

The Muslim League, while endorsing India’s demand for independence, should collaborate with the Congress in forming a Provincial Interim Government for the transitional period.
After the conclusion of the war, a commission would be appointed to demarcate contiguous districts in the North-West and North-East, which had an absolute Muslim majority.
In the event of separation, essential common services such as defense, commerce, communication, and other vital sectors were to be jointly managed. Any population transfer would only occur on a completely voluntary basis.
The implementation of the scheme would only take place after the complete transfer of power by the British.
Jinnah rejected Rajagopalachari’s proposal, arguing that it offered a “mutilated and moth-eaten Pakistan.” However, he agreed to hold talks with Gandhi. Jinnah insisted that only Muslims should be entitled to vote for partition, excluding the entire population of the disputed areas. Gandhiji rejected this demand, as it was based on the Two-Nation theory.
VD Savarkar, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee of the Hindu Mahasabha, and Srinivas Shastri of the National Liberal Federation also opposed the C. Rajagopalachari Formula.

Desai-Liaquat Proposals (1945)

Directed by Gandhiji, Bhulabhai Jivanji Desai made another attempt in 1945 to appease the league leaders and find a way out of the political impasse between 1942 and 1945.
Desai, the leader of the Congress in the Central Assembly and a friend of Liaquat Ali, the Deputy Leader of the Muslim League, met him in January 1945 and presented proposals for the formation of an Interim Government at the Centre.
After Desai’s declaration in Peshawar on 22nd April 1945, Liaquat Ali published a list of agreements, which included the following points:
Nomination of an equal number of persons by both parties in the Central Executive.
Representation of minorities, particularly the Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Sikhs.
The government was to be formed and operate within the framework of the existing Government of India Act, of 1935.
Both the Muslim League and the Congress were not in favor of this proposal.

Wavell Plan (1945)

Since the resignation of Congress Ministries in 1939, a political deadlock persisted in the country. In an attempt to resolve this deadlock, Viceroy Lord Wavell went to England for consultation in March 1945.

To create a conducive atmosphere for dialogue, Viceroy Lord Wavell ordered the release of all the Congress Working Committee members on 14th June 1945. On this day, Wavell broadcast a plan, popularly known as the Wavell Plan.

The Wavell Plan proposed the formation of a new Executive Council at the Centre, where all members, except the Viceroy and Commander-in-Chief, would be Indian. Additionally, all portfolios, except defense, were to be under the control of Indian members.

In the proposed Executive Council, comprising 14 members, Muslims, constituting about 25% of the total population of India, were given the right to be overrepresented by selecting six representatives.

While the Viceroy would still have the power of veto, its use would be minimal. The foreign affairs portfolio would be transferred from the Governor-General to an Indian member, and defense would be handled by a British General until the full transfer of power was achieved.

Simla Conference, 1945

In 1945, a conference was called at Simla by Viceroy Lord Wavell to reconstitute the Executive Council in consultation with Indian leaders. Mr. Jinnah represented the Muslim League, while Congress nominated Maulana Abul Kalam Azad as its representative.
The conference was convened at Jinnah’s insistence, emphasizing his party’s exclusive right to nominate Muslim members of the Viceroy’s Executive Council. This was unacceptable to Congress, as it contradicted the basic principles of democracy. Consequently, the Simla Conference failed.

Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)

The decision to dispatch the Cabinet Mission was made on January 22, 1946. On February 19, 1946, British Prime Minister CR Attlee announced in the House of Lords the mission and the intention to withdraw from India.
A high-powered mission consisting of three British Cabinet members—Sir Patrick Lawrence (Secretary of State for India), Sir Stafford Cripps (President of the Board of Trade), and AV Alexander (First Lord of Admiralty)—arrived in Delhi on March 24, 1946.
The mission aimed to explore peaceful ways to transfer power in India, suggest measures for the formation of a Constitution-making mechanism and establish an Interim Government.

Purpose of Cabinet Mission Plan

On May 16, 1946, the Cabinet Mission presented its recommendations, which included:

Retaining the unity of India.
Rejecting the League’s demand for a full-fledged Pakistan, arguing that it wouldn’t resolve the communal minority problem. Partition would create serious problems related to defense, communication, etc.
Proposing a very loose union of all Indian territories (comprising both British India and princely states) under a Center that would control only defense, foreign affairs, and communication.
The Union would possess the necessary powers to raise finances for managing these subjects.All subjects other than Union subjects and residual powers would be vested in the provinces of British India. Princely states would retain all subjects and residual powers not ceded to the Union.
The Provincial Legislatures would then elect a Constituent Assembly or Constitution-making body, with each province allotted a specified number of seats proportionate to its population (roughly in the ratio of one representative to a million population).

The proposed Constituent Assembly would consist of 292 members from British India and 93 from the Indian States. The British India members would be divided into 210 General, 78 Muslims, and 4 Sikh seats.

In the preliminary meeting, the assembly would elect not only a Chairman and other office bearers but also an Advisory Committee. The members so elected would be divided into three sections:
Section A for the non-Muslim majority provinces (Bombay, the United Provinces, Bihar, the Central Provinces, Orissa, and Madras).
Section B for the Muslim-majority provinces in the North-West (Sind, NWFP, and Punjab).
Section C, consisting of Bengal and Assam, where Muslims had a small majority over the rest. Among the Chief Commissioners’ provinces, three—Delhi, Ajmer-Marwar, and Coorg—would join Group A, whereas one—Baluchistan—would join Group B.

All these sections would have the authority to draft Provincial Constitutions and, if necessary, group Constitutions, thereby establishing provincial and sectional legislatures and executives.

After the first general election, a province could exit a group. After 10 years, a province could call for reconsideration of the group or union Constitution.
The arrangement of provinces was designed to appease the Muslim League, providing it with a semblance of Pakistan to enjoy almost complete autonomy in Muslim-majority provinces.
The Congress advocated for the grouping to be optional (due to NWFP and Assam opposing being included in Section B and C), while the League insisted on compulsory grouping.
The Akali Sikhs opposed the proposals, arguing that including the Sikh community in the North-Western Muslim Block (Group B) would leave Sikhs vulnerable to the whims of Muslims, endangering Sikh religion and culture.

Elections of 1945-46

The failure of the Shimla Conference was revived with the rise of the Labour Party in Britain. An important move by the Labour Government was the announcement of elections to the central and provincial assemblies in 1945 and 1946. The primary contenders were the Congress and the Muslim League. The elections held great significance for the League in its pursuit of Pakistan.
The Indian National Congress emerged as the largest party, securing 59 out of the 102 elected seats.

The Muslim League’s notable success was in Bengal, where it won 113 out of 119 seats reserved for Muslims. The elected members later constituted the Constituent Assembly of India. These elections marked the last general elections in British India, with subsequent elections taking place in 1951 in independent India.

Interim Government (1946)

On 12th August 1946, Viceroy Lord Wavell invited the Congress to form the government under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, officially established on 2nd September 1946. Initially, the Muslim League stayed out.
On 13th October, the Muslim League decided to join the Interim Government.
On 26th October, five nominees from the League joined the government. Congress appointees resigned to accommodate the League nominees (two seats were already vacant, and Mr Sarat Bose, Syed Ali Zahir, and Sir Shafat Ahmed Khan resigned).

Ministers of Various Departments

Ministers	Departments
Lord Mountbatten	Viceroy and Governor-General of India
Jawaharlal Nehru	Vice-President of the Executive Council, External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations
Vallabhbhai Patel	Home, Information and Broadcasting
Baldev Singh	Defence
Dr John Matthai	Industries and Supplies
C Rajagopalachari	Education
CH Bhabha	Works, Mines and Power
Rajendra Prasad	Food and Agriculture
Asaf Ali	Railways
Jagjivan Ram	Labour
Liaquat Ali Khan	Finance (Shanmugam Chettiar after Liaquat Ali’s resignation)
TT Chundrigar	Commerce
Abdur Rab Nishtar	Communication
Ghazanfar Ali Khan	Health
Jogendra Nath Mandal	Law

The Royal Indian Navy (RIN) Mutiny

Initiated at Bombay harbor on 18th February 1946, the Royal Indian Navy Mutiny was led by Ratings (Non-Commissioned officers and sailors) in opposition to the British.
Indian sailors faced harsh treatment from their British commanders, with significant disparities in pay, living conditions, and basic amenities compared to their British counterparts in the Navy.
Notably, the mutiny concluded after nationalist leaders Sardar Patel and Mohammad Ali Jinnah, responding to a British request for intervention, issued a statement urging the mutineers to surrender.
This highlighted a shift where the armed forces no longer blindly followed British authority; instead, nationalist leaders wielded influence. The RIN Revolt was viewed as an event signaling the end of British rule.

Direct Action Day

On 30th July 1946, the Muslim League made the decision that 16th August 1946 would be observed as Direct Action Day nationwide. The Bengal Government, led by league leader HS Suhrawardy, declared 16th August a public holiday. In Calcutta, the league organized a public demonstration and hartal on 16th August, which escalated into clashes and rioting across the city. Communal riots also erupted in various parts of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Bombay.

Formation of Constituent Assembly (1946)

The election for the Constituent Assembly took place in July 1946.
Out of the total 292 seats allocated to British India, the Congress secured 201, the Muslim League 73, independents 8, and members from other parties 6. Four seats remained vacant due to the Sikh refusal to join the assembly.
The Constituent Assembly convened for the first time on 9th December 1946 in the library of the Council Chamber, Delhi, with 205 members in attendance.
The league representatives and nominees from the princely states abstained. On 11th December, the assembly elected Dr. Rajendra Prasad as its permanent President.

Objective Resolution (1947)

The crucial Objective Resolution, declaring the assembly’s firm resolve that India would be an independent sovereign state, was adopted on 22nd January 1947.
This resolution later became part of the Preamble of the Indian Constitution. In light of its decision to reject the Cabinet Mission Plan, the league refused to join the Constituent Assembly.

Prelude to Independence

The Cabinet Mission’s proposals were neither fully accepted by the Congress nor Muslim League liked it completely.
The Mulsim League’s demand for a separate nation grew stronger after the Cabinet Mission. But not everyone supported this demand (including Muslims) for ex.
Abul Kalam Azad and Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan and NWFP continued to firmly oppose the idea of partition.

Attlee’s Announcement

On 20th February 1947, the newly appointed Prime Minister of the UK, Clement Attlee, declared in the House of Commons that the British would withdraw from India by 30th June 1948, and thereafter, Lord Mountbatten would replace Wavell as Viceroy. However, this announcement did not address the constitutional crisis arising from the Constituent Assembly.
In response to the constitutional uncertainty, the Congress extended a cooperative gesture to the League, while Jinnah remained confident in achieving his goal of Pakistan.

Attlee emphasized in his announcement that power would be transferred to the Central and Provincial bodies if the Constituent Assembly did not become fully representative, meaning the Muslim-majority provinces did not join.

With this move, the British opted to navigate the situation without imposing any check or restraints, even as tensions escalated.

Mountbatten Plan

Lord Mountbatten, the 34th and last British Governor-General and Viceroy, arrived in India on 22nd March 1947. Convinced that partition was the only viable choice, Mountbatten engaged in final discussions with the Congress, the League, and Sikh leaders to secure their agreement on his Partition Plan.
After gaining reluctant consent from the Congress for the partition, Lord Mountbatten visited London for consultations in May 1947. According to the plan, India would be divided while maintaining maximum unity, with Pakistan created but kept as small as possible.
The plan stipulated that power would be handed over by 15th August 1947, based on dominion status for both India and Pakistan. The procedure for power transfer included the Provincial Legislative Assemblies of Bengal and Punjab meeting separately to decide, through voting, on the partition of the province. Similar provisions were made for Sind and Baluchistan, with a referendum included for the NWFP and the Muslim-majority district of Sylhet.
Regarding Indian States, the British Government would cease to exercise paramountcy, allowing states to enter into political relations with the successor government. The plan also established a Boundary Commission to demarcate boundaries in case partition was implemented.
Mountbatten’s delay in announcing the Boundary Commission Award, even though it was ready by 12th August 1947, exacerbated the partition tragedy. The provincial assemblies of East Bengal, West Punjab, and Sind voted for Pakistan, and in Baluchistan, the decision to join Pakistan was made by a meeting of the Quetta Municipality.
In the North-West Frontier Province and Sylhet, the majority voted in favor of joining Pakistan.
On 3rd June 1947, the Congress Working Committee approved the Partition Plan. The AICC, meeting in New Delhi on 14th-15th June, ratified the proposal.
Pandit Govind Vallabh Pant moved the resolution for ratification, stating, “This was the only way to achieve freedom and liberty for the country.”

The Balkan Plan

Lord Mountbatten, sent to India in March 1947 as Viceroy to oversee the transfer of power, initially planned to split the country into a dozen or more autonomous provinces.
Mountbatten had cleared his plan with London without consulting key Indian political leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru of the Congress or Muhammad Ali Jinnah of the Muslim League, or even Gandhiji.
Jawaharlal Nehru completely disapproved of the plan. Consequently, Mountbatten asked VP Menon, his principal adviser, to draw up an alternative plan. The revised plan aimed to carve out Pakistan from the old British and Princely States.

Some Nationalist Leaders Who Disapproved the Plan

Frontier Gandhi regarded the partition as treachery on the part of the Congress and felt that “The Khudai Khidmatgars were being thrown to the wolves.”
They even boycotted the referendum held in NWFP. Khan Abul Gaffar Khan wanted an independent Pathan State in NWFP.
Suhrawardy and Abul Hasan were for an independent united Bengal. The Hindu Mahasabha also opposed the partition.

The non-Muslim majority areas in Punjab and Bengal, as well as the entire province of Assam (except a part of Sylhet), remained within the boundaries of India.

Two-Nation Theor000y

Muhammad Ali Jinnah postulated the ideology that religion is the determining factor in defining the nationality of Indian Muslims and Hindus, terming it the awakening of Muslims for the creation of Pakistan.
This theory held that there were two nations—one belonging to the Hindus and the other to the Muslims—living in the territory of India.
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was the first exponent of the Two-Nation Theory in the modern era.
Events such as the Urdu-Hindi controversy (1867), the partition of Bengal (1905), and Hindu revivalism set the Hindus and Muslims further apart.
The Lahore Resolution of the Muslim League in March 1940, when Jinnah raised concerns regarding Hindus and Muslims having a shared nationality or cultural unity, provided the political platform for the demand for Pakistan.
Geographically connected areas would be divided into autonomous sovereign nations with a Muslim majority in the North-Western and Eastern provinces.
British imperial practices in India created an environment conducive to the birth, expansion, and popularity of community organizations that served specific community interests.
Besides serving the political ambitions of opportunistic leaders, the British also indirectly promoted imperialistic goals through these actions.
The Hindu Mahasabha, established in 1925, and the Muslim League, founded in 1915, gained such influence that the Congress found it nearly impossible to disregard their demands.
The Hindu Mahasabha strongly advocated for the creation of a separate state for Muslims, asserting that India had always been a Hindu nation (with Hindu as a geographical connotation).
The Congress consistently rejected this proposal until the passage of the Indian Independence Act, at which point it reluctantly agreed to the division of India.

Indian Independence Act (1947)

The British Government presented the Indian Independence Bill to Parliament on 4th July 1947, which was enacted on 18th July.
The Act called for the partition of India and the creation of two dominions (India and Pakistan) starting from 15th August 1947. Each dominion’s legislature would have full authority to enact laws for its jurisdiction.
The dominion of India would encompass all of British India, excluding the territories constituting Pakistan, namely West Punjab, Baluchistan, NWFP, Sind, and East Bengal. The precise boundaries of the two dominions would be determined by a Boundary Commission.

Partition of India

Communal riots, ignited in Calcutta on 16th August with the observance of Direct Action Day, spread like a chain reaction. Jinnah blamed Gandhiji, the Viceroy, and the British.
Mountbatten’s decision in the summer of 1947, that the division of the country was the only practical solution, was accepted by the three major parties, i.e., the British Government, the Indian National Congress, and the All India Muslim League.

Critical Events Leading to Partition

The partition of Bengal in 1905 served as the initial act of the British in breaking Hindu-Muslim unity in India.
The introduction of the Morley Minto reforms in 1909 also proved to be a critical juncture in the struggle against colonial domination in India.
The Montague-Chelmsford reforms or the Government of India Act 1919 marked a step further in the growth of communalization in India, with provisions for the reservation of seats in Provincial and Imperial legislatures for Sikhs, Anglo-Indians, Indian Christians, and domicile Europeans.
Sir Muhammad Iqbal became the leader of the Muslim League in 1930 and, for the first time, articulated a demand for a separate Muslim state. He argued that Muslims and Hindus constituted two different nations and were incompatible.
The British policy of divide and rule became evident in the Communal Award of 1932.
On 16th August 1946, Jinnah declared Direct Action Day, and the Muslim League raised the demand for an independent Pakistan. Communal tensions among Hindus and Muslims escalated in places including Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Bihar, and Punjab.
The Mountbatten plan, as announced on 3rd June 1947, stated that power would be transferred from the British to two states, i.e., India and Pakistan.

Causes of Partition

The partition of India primarily stemmed from communal politics, marked by an escalation in religious tensions between Hindus and Muslims. The growth of communal politics served as a foundation for mobilizing people against each other, leading to communal discord.
Jinnah successfully swayed the majority of Muslims, fostering a fear that an independent India would be dominated by Hindus. He adopted the slogan “Pakistan or Perish.” Nehru formed a cabinet, but Jinnah doubted that Hindus could be trusted to treat Muslims fairly. He called for a day of direct action in support of a separate Pakistan.

Nehru-Liaquat Pact

After independence in 1947, the Nehru-Liaquat Pact, also known as the Delhi Pact, was signed on 8th April 1950 to address the refugee problem. Louis Mountbatten, the new Viceroy, concluded that partition was necessary to avoid civil war.

Gandhiji and the Partition of India

Gandhiji opposed partition and was even willing to offer the Prime Ministership to Jinnah to prevent it. However, he realized that he had lost the support of many Hindus, and Muslims no longer trusted him.
Despite Gandhiji’s emphasis on communal harmony, he couldn’t promote Hindu-Muslim unity. On the morning of 3rd June 1947, the day the partition plan was announced, Gandhiji told Rajendra Prasad, “I can see only evil in the plan.” He opposed the partition until the very end.

Radcliffe Boundary Commission

A consultative committee formed in July 1947 to recommend the division of the Punjab and Bengal regions between India and Pakistan before gaining independence from Britain. Lord Mountbatten, the final Viceroy of British India, appointed the commission, which included four members from the Indian National Congress and four from the Muslim League, chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe.
The commission’s task was to draw boundaries in the two regions that would preserve, as much as possible, the most cohesive Hindu and Muslim populations within Indian and Pakistani territory, respectively.
On the 14th/15th midnight of 1947, MS Subbulakshmi sang “Hindustan Hamara” and “Jan Gan Man” in the Central Assembly.

Prelims FActs

In which year did the British Parliament pass the Indian Independence Act? – July 1947 (UPPSC (Mains) 2012, UPPSC (Pre) 2014)
The British Government decided and declared to leave India by June, 1948 in -February 1947 (UKPSC (Mains) 2006]
Who was the British monarch at the time of Indian independence – George (JPSC (Pre) 2016]
Which party was in power in the UK when India got independence? – Labour Party [CGPSC (Pre) 2003, UPPSC (Mains) 2012)
Who was the first Governor-General of free India? – Lord Mountbatten (MPPSC (Pre) 2010, UPPSC (Mains) 2014
Who sang ‘Hindustan Hamara’ of Iqbal and ‘Jann Gann-Mann’ in Central Assembly at midnight of 14/15th August, 1947? – MS Subbulakshmi (UPPSC (Pre) 2010
London branch of All India Muslim League was established in 1908 under the Presidency of – Syed Ameer Ali [IAS (Pre) 2001]
Who described Jinnah as the ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity? – Sarojini Naidu (UPPSC (Pre) 2000)
Which British Mission /Plan had rejected the demand of Pakistan? – Cabinet Mission (UPPSC (Pre) 2016)
The Muslims, if contented and satisfied, would become the greatest bulwark and British power in India’, who wrote it? – WW Hunter [BPSC (Pre) 2016]
In August 1947, which leader did not participate anywhere in the Independence celebration? – Mahatma Gandhi [UPPSC (Mains) 2016]
Who was the first Governor-General of free India? – Lord Mountbatten [MPPSC (Pre) 2010, UPPSC (Mains) 2014
Who was the President of Indian National Congress at the time of partition? – JB Kripalani [BPSC (Pre) 2003, UPPSC (Mains) 2005]
The formula for transfer of sovereignty of India in 1947 was known a – Mountbatten Plan [UPPSC (Mains) 2016]
In the meeting of All India Committee on 14th to 15th June 1947, who voted against the partition of India? – Abdul Gaffar Khan [UPPSC (Pre) 2002]
Mountbatten Plan (June 1947) provided for a referendum in which province? – North-West Frontier Province IJPSC (Pre) 2016]
Which portfolio was held by Dr Rajendra Prasad in the interim government formed in the year 1946? – Food and agriculture [IAS (Pre) 2006]

UPSC NCERT Practice Questions

1.In which of the following districts of Uttar Pradesh, parallel government was established during Quit India Movement? UPPSC (Mains) 2013

(a) Jaunpur

(b) Azamgarh

(d) Ghazipur

2. The Congress ministries in all the provinces resigned in the year 1939, because IAS (Pre) 2012

(a) Congress was unable to make a Cabinet in other four provinces.

(b) the rise of the left wing of Congress made impossible to work for the Cabinet.

(d) None of the above

3. Who among the following were official Congress negotiators with Cripps Mission? IAS (Pre) 2010

(a) Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Patel

(b) Acharya JB Kripalani and C Rajagopalachari

(d) Rajendra Prasad and Rafi Ahmed Kidwai

4. The plan of Sir Stafford Cripps envisaged that after the Second World War IAS (Pre) 2016

(a) India should be granted complete independence.

(b) India should be partitioned into two before granting independence.

(d) India should be given Dominion Status.

5. Which revolutionary made the following statement?

“Avenge the blood of Indian Martyrs. Use your swords to liberate your motherland. Stand up against the entire Anglo-American enemy” CGPSC (Pre) 2020

(a) Ras Behari Ghosh

(b) Subhash Chandra Bose

(d) Khudiram Bose

6. With reference to the Indian freedom struggle, Usha Mehta is well known for IAS (Pre) 2011

(a) running the Secret Congress Radio in the wake of Quit India Movement.

(b) participating in the Second Round Table Conference.

(d) assisting in the formation of Interim Government under Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru.

7. Which one of the following observations is not true about the Quit India Movement of 1942? IAS (Pre). 2011

(a) It was a hiên-violent movement.

(b) It was led by Mahatma Gandhi.

(d) It did not attract the labour class in general.

8. With reference to 8th August, 1942 in Indian history, which one of the following statements is correct? IAS (Pre) 2021

(a) The Quit India Resolution was adopted by the AICC.

(b) The Viceroy’s Executive Council was expanded to include more Indians.

(d) Cripps proposed an Indian Union with full Dominion Status once the Second World War was over.

9. By whom the ‘Quit India Resolution’ was moved in the Bombay Session of the Congress in the year 1942?

(a) Jawaharlal Nehru

(b) Narendra Deo

(d) JB Kripalani

10. After Quit India Movement, C Rajagopalachari issued a pamphlet entitled ‘The Way Out.’ Which one of the following was a proposal in this pamphlet? IAS (Pre) 2010

(a) The establishment of a ‘War Advisory Council’ composed of representatives of British India and the Indian States.

(b) Reconstitution of the Central Executive Council in such a way that all its members, except the Governor General and the Commander-in-Chief, should be Indian leaders.

(c) Fresh elections to the Central and Provincial Legislatures to be held at the end of 1945 and the Constitution making body be convened as soon as

possible.

(d) A solution to the Constitutional deadlock.

11. Consider the following statements. On the eve of launch of Quit India Movement, Mahatma Gandhi IAS (Pre) 2005

1. asked government servants to resign.

2. asked the soldiers to leave their posts.

3. asked the princess of the princely states to accept the sovereignty of their people.

Which of the statements) given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 2 and 3

(d) 1, 2 and 3

12. Who among the following women freedom fighter was not associated with ‘Quit India Movement’? UPPSC (Pre) 2023

(a) Kanak Lata Barua

(b) Matangini Hazra

(d) Aruna Asaf Ali

13. Who joined Subhash Chandra Bose to found All India Forward Bloc and actively associated with the Indian National Army (INA) Movement? BPSC (Pre) 2016

(a) Jayaprakash Narayan

(b) Baikunth Shukla

(d) Ram Narain Prasad

14. INA was the brainchild of UPPSC (Pre) 2001

1. Gyani Pritam Singh

2. Mohan Singh

3. Subhash Chandra Bose 4. Major Iwaichi Fujiwara

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 2 and 3

(d) 1 and 4

15. What was the name of the female Regiment constituted as a part of the Azad Hindi Fauj by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose?

(a) Bharat Mata Regiment

(b) Rani Jhansi Regiment

(d) Veerangana Regiment

16. With reference to the Cabinet Mission, which of the following statements is/are correct? IAS (Pre) 2015

1. It recommended a Federal Government.

2. It enlarged the powers of the Indian Courts.

3. It provided for more Indians in the ICS.

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) Only 1 b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) None of these

Know Right Answer

1 (c)

2 (d)

3 (c)

4 (d)

5 (b)

6 (a)

7 (a)

8 (d)

9 (a)

10 (d)

11 (c)

12 (c)

13 (c)

14 (d)

15 (b)

16 (a)

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. Q: What were the main features of the Quit India Movement?

A: The Quit India Movement was launched in August 1942 as a mass protest against British rule. Its main features included a call for an immediate end to British colonialism, widespread civil disobedience, and non-violent resistance. The movement was led by Mahatma Gandhi, and despite being suppressed by the British, it played a significant role in shaping India’s path towards independence.

2. Q: How did the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946 propose to solve the constitutional deadlock in India?

A: The Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946 aimed to solve the constitutional deadlock by proposing a federal structure for India with a weak center. It recommended the creation of three groups of provinces, each with its own constitution, and an interim government at the center. However, the plan faced opposition from various political groups, and its implementation was not successful in preventing the partition of India in 1947.

3. Q: What role did the INA (Indian National Army) play in the struggle for independence?

A: The Indian National Army, led by Subhas Chandra Bose, played a crucial role in the struggle for independence. Formed with the aim of liberating India from British rule, the INA fought alongside the Axis powers during World War II. Although the INA’s military campaign had limited success, it had a profound impact on the morale of the Indian masses and contributed to the eventual withdrawal of the British from India.

4. Q: Discuss the impact of the Mountbatten Plan on the partition of India.

A: The Mountbatten Plan, announced in June 1947, proposed the partition of British India into two independent nations, India and Pakistan. It laid out a timeline for the transfer of power, and the actual partition took place in August 1947. The plan is associated with large-scale communal violence and mass migrations, leading to one of the most tragic episodes in Indian history. It resulted in the creation of the Republic of India and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.

5. Q: How did the post-independence integration of princely states take place in India?

A: After independence, the integration of princely states into India was a complex process. The Instrument of Accession was used, where princely states acceded to either India or Pakistan based on geographical and demographic factors. Sardar Patel played a key role in convincing the princes to join India. The integration process was mostly peaceful, with a few exceptions, such as the annexation of Hyderabad and Junagadh. This led to the formation of a united and sovereign India.

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UPSC NCERT Notes – Modern History – Towards Independence (1940 -1947)