Peasant Movements in India – UPSC Modern History Notes

• Peasant movements during the British Colonial Period in the 18th and 19th centuries were indeed part of broader social movements against British atrocities and exploitation. These movements emerged as a response to the oppressive policies of the British colonial administration, which disrupted traditional agrarian systems and imposed exploitative economic practices.
• Peasant movements sought to address the grievances of the rural population, which included high taxation, forced labour, eviction from land, oppressive revenue collection practices, and other forms of exploitation. These movements aimed to resist British control, restore their rights and privileges, and protect their traditional social and economic structures.
• The leaders of peasant movements, often drawn from the rural population, organized protests, demonstrations, and acts of civil disobedience to challenge the oppressive policies of the British. They mobilized peasants, farmers, and agricultural labourers to collectively resist British authority and demand justice and fair treatment.
• These movements were rooted in the desire to restore earlier forms of rule and social relations, which were perceived as more equitable and just. Peasants sought to regain control over their lands, protect their customary rights, and preserve their traditional ways of life. They often drew inspiration from cultural, religious, and traditional symbols and practices to unite and mobilize the rural masses.
• Peasant movements played a significant role in shaping the anti-colonial struggle in India and laid the foundation for broader movements for independence and social change. They highlighted the aspirations and grievances of the rural population and contributed to the formation of collective consciousness and resistance against British colonial rule.
• It is important to note that while peasant movements aimed to restore earlier social relations, they also envisioned a more just and equitable society beyond the colonial era. These movements laid the groundwork for agrarian reforms, land redistribution, and the empowerment of rural communities in post-independence India.

Peasant Movements – Background

• The impoverishment and grievances faced by the Indian peasantry during the colonial period set the stage for the emergence of peasant movements. The transformation of the agrarian structure due to colonial economic policies, the decline of handicrafts, the imposition of high land taxes, and exploitative practices by moneylenders and landlords created a situation of immense distress for the rural population.
• Peasants in Zamindari areas faced various forms of exploitation, including exorbitant rents, illegal levies, forced evictions, and unpaid labour. The colonial government’s land revenue system imposed heavy taxes on cultivators in Ryotwari areas, further exacerbating their economic burdens.
• With limited options to overcome their difficulties, many peasants turned to moneylenders who took advantage of their vulnerability by charging high-interest rates and seizing their mortgaged assets, such as land and cattle. This pushed peasants into a cycle of debt and further marginalized their economic position.
• As a result of these conditions, peasants began to resist exploitation and realized that their true adversary was the colonial state. They became aware of their collective grievances and started organizing themselves to challenge oppressive practices. Peasants often engaged in acts of resistance, ranging from peaceful protests to more drastic measures like robbery and dacoity, as a means to escape their intolerable conditions.
• These acts of resistance and crimes were not simply acts of desperation but were often seen as forms of social banditry, where peasants resisted and fought against the unjust social and economic order imposed upon them.
• Peasant movements emerged as a response to these grievances, aiming to address the injustices faced by the rural population and restore their rights and livelihoods. These movements played a significant role in shaping the anti-colonial struggle and advocating for agrarian reforms and social justice.
• It is important to understand that while some peasants resorted to criminal activities out of desperation, the majority of peasant movements were peaceful and aimed at bringing about meaningful change in their social and economic conditions. These movements were rooted in the aspiration for a more equitable and just society, free from the exploitative practices of the colonial era.

Eka Movement (1921)

• The Eka Movement, also known as the Unity Movement, was a significant peasant movement that emerged in the districts of Lucknow, Hardoi, Unnao, and Sitapur in colonial India in November 1921. It was part of a broader wave of peasant uprisings that occurred in the aftermath of World War I.
• The movement was initially supported by both the Indian National Congress and the Khilafat movement, which aimed to protect the interests of Muslims regarding the Ottoman Caliphate. However, the leadership of the movement later shifted to Madari Pasi, a low-caste leader who was not aligned with the nonviolent ideology espoused by Mahatma Gandhi and the nationalist class.
• The main grievance that fueled the Eka Movement was the issue of high rents imposed on peasants, which sometimes exceeded 50% of their recorded rent. The movement also protested against the oppressive practices of the thekedars, who were responsible for rent collection, and the system of sharecropping. Peasants were burdened by heavy rent payments and exploitative labour practices, leading to widespread discontent.
• The Eka meetings, held as part of the movement, were marked by religious rituals symbolizing unity and resistance. Peasants would dig a hole representing the Ganga (a sacred river), fill it with water, and make vows to pay only recorded rent, refuse to do forced labour, abide by Panchayat (local self-government) decisions, and remain united.
• However, as the movement shifted its leadership to Madari Pasi, who advocated a more confrontational approach, it lost support from the nationalist class. Gandhi and the Congress leaders emphasized nonviolent resistance, and the movement’s turn towards violence led to a disconnection between the Eka Movement and the broader nationalist struggle.
• The movement faced severe repression from the authorities, and in March 1922, it came to an end. The British colonial administration employed repressive measures to suppress the movement, leading to its eventual decline.
• Although the Eka Movement ultimately faced repression and did not achieve its immediate goals, it represented a significant episode of peasant resistance against the exploitative agrarian system under colonial rule. It highlighted the deep-seated grievances of the peasantry and their willingness to mobilize collectively to demand their rights and challenge oppressive practices.

Eka Movement – Causes 

• The primary catalyst for the movement was the exorbitant rent, which often exceeded 50% of the officially recorded rental value in certain areas. The movement gained momentum due to the mistreatment of thekedars responsible for rent collection and the practice of share rent. The uprising was deeply rooted in the exploitative agrarian structure of the Awadh region, which was controlled by Taluqdars (aristocratic hereditary landowners) and zamindars, who were typically Hindu or Muslim elites. These landowners leased land to tenant farmers and imposed exorbitant rents and additional fees to collect revenue for the colonial government. Tenant farmers, who hired agricultural labourers to cultivate the land, had no ownership rights and faced eviction by the zamindars if they failed to pay rent.

Objectives Eka Movement

• The objectives of the movement included refusing to pay rents beyond the officially recorded amounts, demanding receipts for rent payments, and rejecting the payment of additional charges such as nazrana (tribute) and forced labour (beggar).

Outcome Eka Movement

• The Eka movement ultimately failed due to insufficient organization and leadership. Nevertheless, it succeeded in drawing the government’s attention to the severity of the agrarian crisis. In response, the government swiftly enacted the Oudh Rent (Amendment) Act of 1921, which came into effect in November 1921 and aimed to quell agrarian unrest and address some immediate concerns of the peasants. However, increased government repression led some peasants to withdraw from the movement, and few were content with the benefits provided by the Oudh Rent (Amendment) Act of 1921.

All India Kisan Sabha (1936)

• The All India Kisan Sabha, also referred to as the Akhil Bharatiya Kisan Sabha, is the farmers’ or peasants’ wing of the Communist Party of India. It is a significant movement representing the interests of farmers. The organization was established in 1936 by Sahajanand Saraswati during the Indian National Congress Lucknow Session that took place in the same year.

Background of All India Kisan Sabha

• The origins of the Kisan Sabha movement can be traced back to Bihar, where Sahajanand Saraswati established the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS) in 1929. The primary objective of this organization was to mobilize peasants and address their grievances against zamindars who were encroaching upon their rights to land occupancy. This marked the beginning of the farmers’ movement in India.
• Over time, the peasant movement gained strength and spread across the country. These radical developments within the peasant community eventually led to the formation of the All India Kisan Sabha during the Lucknow session of the Indian National Congress in April 1936. Swami Sahajanand Saraswati was elected as the first president of the All India Kisan Sabha.
• Prominent members of this Sabha included N.G. Ranga, E.M.S. Namboodiripad, Indulal Yagnik, Sohan Singh Bhakna, Z.A. Ahmed, Pandit Karyanand Sharma, Pandit Yamuna Karjee, Pandit Yadunandan (Jadunandan) Sharma, Rahul Sankrityayan, P. Sundarayya, and Ram Manohar Lohia.
• In August 1936, the Kisan Sabha issued the Kisan Manifesto, which called for the abolition of the Zamindari system and the cancellation of rural debts. In October 1937, the organization adopted the red flag as its official banner.
• However, as time passed, the leaders of the All India Kisan Sabha grew increasingly distant from the Indian National Congress. They clashed with Congress governments in Bihar and the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh).

Features of All India Kisan Sabha

• The All India Kisan Sabha was established in April 1936 in Lucknow, with Swami Sahjanand Saraswati serving as the president and N.G. Ranga as the general secretary.
• The organization issued a Kisan manifesto and launched a periodical under the guidance of Indulal Yagnik.
• In 1936, both the All India Kisan Sabha and the Indian National Congress held a joint meeting in Faizpur.
• The agenda of the All India Kisan Sabha had a significant influence on the Congress manifesto, particularly regarding agrarian policies, for the provincial elections in 1937.

All India Kisan Sabha – Objectives

• Initially, the Kisan Sabhas aimed to promote understanding between peasants and landlords. However, due to the obstinate and oppressive attitude of the landlords, the Kisan Sabhas were compelled to adopt a militant approach.
• They also continued to propagate nationalist ideology among the peasants in support of the Congress’ political agenda.
• The primary goals of the All India Kisan Sabha were to abolish landlordism, provide free land to agricultural and rural labourers, improve the standard of living for rural masses, and put an end to the exploitation of agricultural and rural labourers.

All India Kisan Sabha – Outcome

• As time passed, the All India Kisan Sabha became increasingly dominated by Socialists and Communists, distancing itself from the Indian National Congress.
• During the Congress’s Haripura session in February 1938, members of the Congress were prohibited from joining the Kisan Sabhas.
• When peasant movements faced severe repression in the Princely States, Congress leaders refrained from intervening.
• The divide between the All India Kisan Sabha and the Congress became evident during the Congress’s Haripura session in 1938.
• By May 1942, the Communist Party of India (CPI) had gained control of the All India Kisan Sabha in all Indian states, including Bengal.
• The organization aligned with the Communist Party’s People’s War stance and did not actively participate in the Quit India Movement that began in August 1942, despite the potential loss of its popular support base.
• Many members of the All India Kisan Sabha disregarded party orders and participated in revolutionary activities.
• Prominent members such as N.G. Ranga, Indulal Yagnik, and Swami Sahajananda found it challenging to address peasants without adopting a diluted pro-British and pro-war stance, which ultimately led them to dissociate from the organization.

Moplah Rebellion (1921):

• The Moplah Rebellion occurred in 1921 in the Malabar region, where the majority of landlords were Hindus and the Muslim Moplahs were the tenant farmers.
• The Moplahs had several grievances, including insecurity of tenure, high rents, renewal fees, and other oppressive demands imposed by the landlords.
• The Moplah movement became intertwined with the ongoing Khilafat agitation, which sought to protest against the British government’s actions regarding the Caliphate in Turkey.
• Prominent leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi, Shaukat Ali, and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad addressed Moplah meetings, showing their support for their cause.
• The Moplahs perceived that some Hindus were collaborating with the British authorities, leading to the movement taking on communal overtones.
• The communalization of the movement created a division between the Moplahs and the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement.
• By December 1921, the movement was called off.
• The Moplah Rebellion, also known as the Moplah Riots of 1921, was a series of communal riots in the Malabar region of Kerala, India. The rebellion was led by Mappila Muslims, who were mostly tenant farmers, against the British colonial authorities and upper-caste Hindu landlords.
• The rebellion was sparked by a number of factors, including:
• The introduction of new land laws by the British government in the early 19th century gave greater power to the landlords and led to increased rents for the tenants.
• The Khilafat Movement was a pan-Islamic movement that sought to restore the caliphate in Turkey. The Moplahs were sympathetic to the Khilafat Movement and saw it as an opportunity to challenge British rule.
• The economic hardship faced by the Mappila Muslims, who were often exploited by the landlords.
• The rebellion began on 20 August 1921 in Tirurangadi, Malabar. The rebels attacked police stations, government buildings, and Hindu homes and temples. They also killed a number of British officials and Hindu landlords.
• The British authorities responded to the rebellion by imposing martial law and sending in troops. The rebellion was eventually suppressed in November 1921, but not before it had caused widespread death and destruction.
• The Moplah Rebellion is a significant event in Indian history. It was one of the first major challenges to British rule in southern India, and it highlighted the deep-seated communal tensions that existed in the Malabar region. The rebellion also had a significant impact on the Khilafat Movement, as it led to the alienation of many Muslims from the Indian National Congress.
• The Moplah Rebellion is a complex and controversial event. There is no single agreed-upon interpretation of the rebellion, and it has been the subject of much debate and historical revisionism. However, there is no doubt that the rebellion was a significant event in Indian history, and it continues to be studied and debated today.

Bardoli Satyagraha (1926)

• The Bardoli Satyagraha took place in 1926 in the Bardoli taluka of Surat district. It witnessed a high level of political mobilization following Mahatma Gandhi’s emergence on the national political scene.
• The movement began in January 1926 when the British government decided to raise land revenue by 30% in the Bardoli taluka. Congress leaders swiftly protested, leading to the formation of the Bardoli Inquiry Committee to investigate the issue.
• The committee concluded that the increase in land revenue was unjustified. In February 1926, Vallabhbhai Patel was appointed to lead the movement, and he was given the title “Sardar” by the women of Bardoli.
• Under Patel’s leadership, the Bardoli peasants decided to refuse payment of the revised assessment until the government either appointed an independent tribunal or accepted the existing amount as full payment.
• By August 1928, tensions had escalated significantly in the area, and there were discussions of a potential railway strike in Bombay. In anticipation of a potential emergency, Gandhi arrived in Bardoli.
• As the situation intensified, the government sought a graceful resolution. They stipulated that all occupants must first pay the increased rent, although this was not actually enforced. Subsequently, a committee was appointed to investigate the matter and it concluded that the 30% revenue increase was unwarranted. Instead, it recommended a much lower increase of 6.03 per cent.

Tebhaga Movement

• The Tebhaga Movement took place from 1946 to 1947 in Bengal and was a significant peasant agitation initiated by the All India Kisan Sabha, the peasant front of the Communist Party of India. It was a powerful uprising by peasants that occurred on the eve of India’s independence and the partition of Bengal. The term “Tebhaga” referred to the demand that two-thirds of the crops cultivated by bargadars and adhiars (sharecroppers) should be given to them.

Background:

• The Bargadar system involved individuals, known as bargadars, who cultivated the land of others under agreements such as adhi, barga, or bhag. As part of these agreements, the bargadars were required to deliver a share of the produce to the landowners. The zamindars, who were landowners, paid taxes to the British government based on the quantity and quality of the land they owned. Below the zamindars were the jotedars, to whom the land was distributed through a system called Pattani. Jotedars were directly involved in land and cultivation. They would determine the total yield from the land, which was to be shared equally between the cultivator (bargadar) and the landowner (jotedar). This system, known as Adhiary Pratha or the half-half system, was prevalent in North Bengal. The jotedars would exploit the labour of the cultivators, and the bargadars often faced the threat of losing their land and suffering from starvation if they didn’t comply with the demands of the jotedars. This system led to significant exploitation of the peasants.
• The peasants’ grievances intensified due to worsening economic conditions in the post-war period following a severe famine in Bengal in 1942. The economic hardships, political unrest, and oppressive social conditions faced by the peasants culminated in the Tebhaga Andolan (Movement).

The Movement:

• During the Tebhaga Movement, Communist leaders and Krishak Samity leaders capitalized on the discontent prevailing among poor peasants and landless agricultural labourers.
• The movement originated in an area under the jurisdiction of PS Chirirbandar in the Dinajpur district.
• The assembled farmers refused to give fifty per cent of their yield and instead offered thirty-three per cent to the jotedars (landowners).
• A serious clash erupted between the armed men of the jotedars and the determined peasants, resulting in injuries to both parties.
• The police intervened and gained control of the region by arresting the supporters and leaders of the movement.
• Following the Bengal famine in 1943, the Bengal Provincial Kishan Sabha, guided by the Communist Party, called for a mass movement among sharecroppers in September 1946. The objective was to secure Tebhaga, or two-thirds, of the harvested crops for the sharecroppers.
• This demand had been part of the Kishan Sabha’s agenda since the 1930s and had also been recognized as just by the Floud Commission. The Floud Commission was a land revenue commission established by the Government of Bengal in 1938. It had conducted a comprehensive review of the dire state of agriculture in Bengal and highlighted the problems with the prevailing system, which compelled sharecroppers to surrender half of their harvest as rent, in addition to numerous illegal cesses they were forced to pay.
• Communists actively ventured into the countryside to organize peasants and encourage them to take their harvested crops to their own threshing floors, thereby making the two-thirds share a reality.
• The slogan “adhi noy, tebhaga chai” (we want two-thirds to share, not half) resonated throughout the movement.
• Peasants began taking their harvested crops to their own storage yards and offered only one-third of the crop share to the jotedars.
• These actions led to numerous clashes, resulting in arrests, lathi charges, and firing by the authorities.
• In late 1946, sharecroppers in Bengal asserted their refusal to give half of their crop share to the jotedars, instead opting for only one-third. They also demanded that the crop be stored in their own storage facilities rather than those belonging to the jotedars.
• In September 1946, the Bengal Provincial Kishan Sabha issued a call for the mass struggle to implement the Floud Commission’s recommendation of tebhaga.
• Communist cadres, including many urban students, ventured into rural areas to organize the sharecroppers, who constituted a significant and growing portion of the rural population.
• The movement received a boost in January 1947 when the Muslim League Ministry led by Suhrawarddi published the Bengal Bargadars Temporary Legislation Bill in the Calcutta Gazette. However, the government’s attempts to enact the Barga Bill into law were hindered by other political developments.
• The movement continued until 1950 when the Bargadari Act was enacted, recognizing the sharecropper’s right to two-thirds of the product when providing inputs. However, the implementation of the Bargadari Act was not effectively carried out, and large tracts of land beyond the prescribed land ceiling remained with wealthy landlords.
• In 1967, West Bengal witnessed a peasant uprising against the non-implementation of land reform legislation. Subsequently, significant land reforms took place in West Bengal from 1977 onwards under the Left Front government, involving the acquisition and distribution of land over the land ceiling among peasants.
• “Operation Barga” was launched to secure tenancy rights for the peasants.
• Overall, the Tebhaga movement showcased the growing political consciousness among poor peasants and tribal sharecroppers. It is considered a pivotal moment in the history of agrarian movements in India and is regarded as one of the greatest peasant movements in the country’s history.

Some Important Peasant Movements in India

The Bakasht Movement

• The Bakasht Movement took place in Bihar from 1937 to 1939 and was initiated by Swami Sahajanand Saraswati. 
• Its primary objective was to oppose the forced displacement of tenants from Bakasht lands by zamindars (landlords). 
• As a result of the movement, the Bihar Tenancy Act and the Bakasht Land Tax were enacted. 
• The Bakasht movement gained widespread traction throughout Bihar, and the Kisan Sabha played a significant role in organizing and motivating the peasants. 
• In December 1938, during the annual conference of the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha held in Waini, Darbhanga, a resolution was passed to protest against the zamindars and advocate for the rights of tenants in Bakasht land.

The Burdwan Satyagraha

• The Burdwan Satyagraha, which took place in the Burdwan district of Bengal in 1927-28, was a notable peasant uprising led by Swami Sahajanand Saraswati. It was a part of the larger Civil Disobedience Movement aimed at opposing British colonial rule.
• The key demands of the Satyagraha were as follows:
• Reduction in land revenue.
• Abolition of forced labour.
• Release of political prisoners.
• The Satyagraha commenced in February 1927 when peasants in Singur village refused to pay their land revenue. In response, the British authorities arrested the leaders, including Swami Sahajanand Saraswati. This sparked widespread protests and demonstrations throughout the Burdwan district.
• The Satyagraha persisted for over a year, eventually resulting in some concessions from the British. They agreed to reduce land revenue by 25% and released a portion of the political prisoners. However, the Satyagraha did not accomplish all of its demands, and British control over Bengal remained intact.
• The Burdwan Satyagraha held immense significance within the Indian independence movement. It demonstrated that mass protests could compel the British to make concessions and served as inspiration for other peasant uprisings across India. Moreover, it played a pivotal role in establishing Swami Sahajanand Saraswati as a prominent figure in the independence movement.

The key events of the Burdwan Satyagraha unfolded as follows:

• February 1927: Peasants in Singur village refuse to pay land revenue.
• March 1927: Swami Sahajanand Saraswati is arrested and imprisoned.
• April 1927: Protests and demonstrations erupt throughout the Burdwan district.
• May 1927: The British authorities agree to a 25% reduction in land revenue.
• June 1927: Release of some political prisoners.
• July 1928: Conclusion of the Satyagraha.
• Overall, the Burdwan Satyagraha left a lasting impact as a significant chapter in the struggle for Indian independence, highlighting the efficacy of mass protests in compelling the British to address the demands of the people.

FAQs

1. What were the main grievances of peasants during the Indian Peasants Movement?

• Peasants were discontented due to oppressive land revenue policies imposed by landlords and colonial authorities.
• They faced exploitation through high rents, unfair tenancy agreements, and usurious money lending practices.
• Loss of traditional rights over land and resources aggravated their discontent.

2. Who were the key leaders of the Peasants Movement in India?

• Leaders like Swami Sahajanand Saraswati in Bihar, Baba Ramchandra in Awadh, and Alluri Sitarama Raju in Andhra Pradesh played pivotal roles.
• Other prominent figures include Bhagat Singh and Chandrasekhar Azad, who advocated for peasant rights alongside their broader nationalist agendas.

3. What were the significant outcomes of the Peasants Movement?

• The movement led to agrarian reforms, including tenancy laws and land redistribution policies in various regions.
• It empowered peasants politically, leading to increased awareness of their rights and participation in the national struggle for independence.

4. How did the Peasants Movement contribute to the Indian freedom struggle?

• Peasant uprisings often overlapped with broader anti-colonial movements, providing crucial momentum to the struggle against British rule.
• They highlighted the economic exploitation faced by peasants under colonialism, linking agrarian issues with the larger fight for independence.

5. What were the long-term implications of the Peasants Movement in India?

• The movement paved the way for agrarian reforms in independent India, influencing policies aimed at redistributing land and empowering rural communities.
• It left a lasting legacy of peasant activism and solidarity, inspiring future movements advocating for social justice and equitable development.

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