Why in news : Following the 50% US tariffs imposed on Indian goods, experts such as former NITI Aayog CEO Amitabh Kant have suggested that tourism could help offset potential losses by attracting high-value tourists, since tourism is free from tariff barriers.  

About :

The UNWTO defines tourists as ‘ people who travel to and stay in place outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited.  

Types of Tourism 

Emerging type of Tourism in World  

1. Noctourism (Nighttime Tourism) : Travel experiences designed for nighttime—wildlife safaris, night markets, illuminated trails, and stargazing.
   Examples: Singapore Night Safari – the world’s first nocturnal zoo.
   Dark Sky Reserves in Ladakh – astro-tourism combined with noctourism. 
2. Astrotourism (Space & Celestial Tourism): Tourism centered on stargazing, eclipses, or even commercial space travel. Eg Iceland & Norway – Northern Lights expeditions.
3. Horti-Tourism (Plantation & Orchard Trails) : Agro-based tourism focusing on orchards, plantations, and biodiversity.Examples: Dunagiri, Uttarakhand – plantation trails of apples, plums, peaches.
4. Cycling Tourism (Eco-Friendly Mobility Travel) : Travel by bicycle along scenic trails, linking wellness, adventure, and sustainability.
   Examples: Boyne Burnett Inland Rail Trail (Queensland, Australia) – revitalized rural towns.
5. Calmcations & Wellness Tourism: Tourism centered around peace, mental health, and rejuvenation.Examples:Kumarakom, Kerala – Ayurveda and backwater wellness retreats.

Drivers of Tourism  

1. Climate Change Adaptation : Climate change has altered temperature, rainfall, and snowfall patterns, directly impacting tourism destinations. Traditional forms such as winter sports or coastal beach tourism are under stress, leading to diversification.
   Examples:
   • • Swiss Alps → warming has shortened ski seasons by up to 38 days (European Environment Agency, 2022), prompting diversification into wellness and adventure tourism. 
     • Maldives → developing coral restoration tourism and marine eco-tourism as sea-level rise threatens conventional beach tourism. 
   • UNWTO (2023) highlighted that nearly 80% of small island tourism destinations are at high risk from climate change, forcing adaptation. 
2. Demographic Shifts : The global population is aging, creating a large group of travelers over 60 years. This “Silver Economy” demands safer, slower, and wellness-oriented tourism. At the same time, youth tourism emphasizes adventure and digital mobility.
   Examples:Japan & Europe → specialized packages for elderly tourists with medical support, assisted mobility, and cultural immersion. By 2050, 1 in 6 people globally will be over 65 (UN, 2022), making senior tourism one of the fastest-growing sectors.
3. Post-COVID Behavioral Change : The pandemic reshaped traveler psychology—preferences shifted from crowded urban destinations to open, nature-based, and wellness-oriented travel. Safety, sustainability, and personalization became crucial.
   Examples: Domestic Tourism Boom in India → hill states like Himachal and Uttarakhand saw surges as people avoided international travel.
   According to UNWTO (2022), nature-based tourism grew by 20–25% globally post-COVID, while mass city tourism declined temporarily. 

Geographical Perspectives  

1. Spatial Diffusion: Tourism innovations that originated in Europe or North America are now diffusing into Asia, Africa, and Latin America due to globalization and improved connectivity.
   Examples:Astrotourism → from U.S. dark-sky reserves to Hanle Dark Sky Reserve (Ladakh, India, 2022) – first in South Asia
2. Regional Development : Tourism functions as a growth pole, creating multiplier effects in peripheral or declining regions.
   Examples:Wine Tourism in Nashik (India) → boosted agro-based industry, employment, and branding of “Wine Capital of India.
3. Environmental Geography : New forms of eco- and regenerative tourism aim to balance human activity with ecosystem health, avoiding biodiversity collapse.
   Examples:Maldives Coral Restoration Tourism → travelers participate in reef-planting, helping biodiversity regeneration.
4. Political Geography: Tourism is increasingly used by states as a soft power tool for image-building, diplomacy, and global influence.Examples:Dubai’s Astro-tourism & Expo 2020 → positioned the city as a futuristic global hub.

Challenges in Tourism  

1. Greenwashing & Commercialization of “Eco-tourism” : Many destinations or operators brand themselves as “eco-friendly” without genuinely adopting sustainable practices. This greenwashing commercializes the idea of eco-tourism while still causing environmental harm.
   Examples: Nepal’s trekking routes → marketed as “sustainable,” yet overtourism leads to trail erosion and waste accumulation. 
2. Digital Divide in Accessing High-Tech Tourism (AR/VR): The rise of AR/VR tourism and digital nomadism requires reliable internet, advanced devices, and digital literacy. Many regions and populations remain excluded, reinforcing spatial inequality.
   Examples: Estonia’s Digital Nomad Visa → attracts high-income professionals, but rural communities often lack digital infrastructure to benefit.
3. Risk of Over-tourism Shifting to Fragile Niches : While emerging forms like astro-tourism, noctourism, or wellness retreats reduce crowding in mass-tourism hotspots, they risk transferring pressure to fragile ecosystems. Carrying capacity often gets ignored.Examples: Iceland Northern Lights Tourism → rapid increase in visitors (5x in 15 years) created environmental stress in rural areas.
4. Cultural Commodification vs. Authenticity : As cultural tourism grows, traditions, rituals, and identities may get commodified for tourists, leading to loss of authenticity and community meaning.
   Examples: Kumbh Mela (India) → while a sacred ritual, packaging it for tourism has raised concerns over turning faith into spectacle

Indian Initiatives to Promote Tourism  

1. Incredible India Campaign (2002 – ongoing): Global branding of India as a premier tourism destination.
   Focus on cultural diversity, heritage circuits, yoga & Ayurveda.Example: “Incredible India 2.0” (2017) emphasized digital promotion and thematic campaigns (e.g., Spiritual Tourism, Adventure Tourism).
2. Swadesh Darshan Scheme (2015): Integrated development of theme-based tourist circuits.Circuits Developed: Buddhist Circuit, Himalayan Circuit, North-East Circuit, Desert Circuit, Tribal Circuit, etc .By 2022, 76 projects worth ₹5,400 crore were sanctioned.
3. PRASHAD Scheme (Pilgrimage Rejuvenation and Spiritual, Heritage Augmentation Drive, 2014-15): Develop pilgrimage sites and heritage destinations.
   Examples: Development of Varanasi ghats, Kamakhya Temple (Assam), Amritsar Golden Temple precinct
4. Dekho Apna Desh Initiative (2020): Encourage domestic tourism, especially post-COVID.
   • Method: Online webinars, digital outreach, promotion of unexplored destinations.  

Conclusion  

“Tourism today is no longer a passive leisure activity but a dynamic driver of cultural exchange, regional development, and environmental stewardship. The emerging forms of tourism—whether regenerative, digital, or wellness-oriented—mirror the broader shifts in society, economy, and geography. For India and the world, the challenge lies in harmonizing growth with sustainability, authenticity, and inclusivity. If managed responsibly, tourism can transform from a consumptive industry into a regenerative force that not only sustains livelihoods but also restores cultures, ecosystems, and human connections across spaces. 

Where to use ? 

Paper III ( General Studies ) : Indian Economy  

Paper II ( Geography Optional ) :  Eco Tourism and Sustainable Development 

Source : https://indianexpress.com/article/trending/top-10-listing/worlds-top-10-biggest-tourism-economies-in-2025-india-ranks-eighth-10119389/ 

Why in news ? : World Senior Citizen Day is celebrated every year on 21st August to acknowledge the contributions of senior citizens, raise awareness about the challenges they face globally, and highlight the growing importance of the silver economy. 

About :

• It is the system of production, distribution and consumption of goods and services aimed at using the purchasing potential of older and ageing people. 
• Rising Elderly Share: India’s elderly population is set to double from 10.5% (150 million) to 20.8% (347 million) by 2050 (NSO). 

Drivers of the Silver Economy 

1. Demographic Transition : Declining fertility + rising life expectancy → higher share of elderly.Example: Japan – 29% of population above 65 → has a robust silver economy with health tech, robotics, and elderly housing. 
2. Rising Healthcare Needs : Elderly require more medical care, long-term treatment, and wellness services.Example: India’s Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission exploring geriatric care as a future market.
3. Financial Security and Pensions : Retirement savings, pensions, and insurance create demand for specialised financial products.Example: In Europe, silver tourism is driven by retirees using pensions for travel.
4. Technological Innovations: Growth of assistive technologies (robots, smart homes, telemedicine).
   Example:Japan – robotic caregivers and AI-enabled monitoring.
5. Consumer Market Expansion : Older adults are becoming active consumers of housing, leisure, tourism, and wellness.The EU estimates its silver economy will reach €5.7 trillion by 2025.Example: Cruise tourism in the USA and Europe thrives on retirees. 
6. Policy Push & Institutional Support : Governments see ageing as both a challenge and opportunity.Example:India: National Programme for Health Care of the Elderly (NPHCE).

Geriatric Challenges 

1. Health-Related Challenges : Elderly face higher risks of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as diabetes, hypertension, cancer, and heart diseases.
   Example: In India, over 50% of elderly suffer from at least one chronic illness (NSSO 75th round, 2017–18)
2. Economic Challenges
   • Loss of Income & Dependency : Only 18% of India’s workforce is covered under any pension scheme (ILO, 2019).Rural elderly often rely on informal labour well beyond 60 due to lack of pension. 
   • Rising Healthcare Costs :  In India, 63% of elderly healthcare costs are out-of-pocket expenses (NITI Aayog, 2021).
3. Social & Cultural Challenges
   • Erosion of Joint Family System : Traditionally, Indian elderly were cared for in joint families. Urbanisation and migration → rise of nuclear families.Example: Many elderly in cities like Delhi, Mumbai live alone or in “old-age homes.”  
4. Infrastructure & Accessibility Challenges
   • Lack of Geriatric-Friendly Spaces : Urban infrastructure (roads, transport, housing) often not senior-friendly.Example: Few Indian cities provide barrier-free public transport for elderly or disabled.
5. Policy & Governance Challenges
   • Inadequate Institutional Care : India has only 12 regional geriatric centres under NPHCE (2022) for a population of over 140 million elderly. 
   • Pension & Social Security Gaps : Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme provides just ₹200–₹500 per month, which is inadequate. 

Way Forward 

• Geriatric Access: Strengthen Ayushman Arogya Mandirs for integrated and accessible geriatric care. 
• Health Investment: Increase Public Health Spending beyond 2% of GDP. 
• Transport Integration: Integrate transport with health services to bridge rural-urban access gaps. 
• Medical Specialisation: Boosting investment in geriatrics as a medical specialisation is critical. 

Conclusion  

The silver economy is a growing global and national phenomenon, with significant potential to transform India’s demographic challenge into an economic opportunity. By addressing the challenges of healthcare, financial security, and digital inclusion, India can create a sustainable and robust economy that caters to the needs of its elderly population, ensuring their well-being and inclusion in society. 

Where to use  

Paper I ( Geography Optional ) : Population Geography  

Paper I ( General Studies ): Population and associated issues  

Source : https://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2025-09-06/india-has-a-silver-lining-inside-trump-s-tariff-storm-new-economy-saturday 

Why in news : Afghanistan was struck by a 6.0-magnitude earthquake, killing over 800 people highlighting the country’s extreme vulnerability to seismic hazards. 

About :  

Why is Afghanistan vulnerable to Earthquakes?  

1. Geological Setting : Afghanistan is located in the Hindu Kush mountain region, which forms part of the Alpide Belt. This belt is recognized as the second most seismically active zone in the world, only after the Circum-Pacific (Ring of Fire).
2. Tectonic Origin : The Alpide Belt was created by the closure of the Tethys Ocean. This process began when the African, Arabian, and Indian plates collided with the Eurasian plate, producing one of the most tectonically unstable regions on Earth.
3. Ongoing Collision: The Indian Plate continues to push northwards into the Eurasian Plate, a movement that not only builds towering mountain chains such as the Himalayas and Hindu Kush but also generates strong seismic disturbances in the region.
4. Seismic Characteristics: Afghanistan is struck by both shallow-focus earthquakes (0–70 km depth), which often cause severe surface destruction, and rare deep-focus earthquakes (reaching depths of nearly 200 km). These deep quakes are a distinctive feature of the Hindu Kush zone.
5. Fault Structures : The region is heavily dissected by major fault lines, especially where the Indian and Eurasian plates interact. These fault systems make Afghanistan’s crust highly fractured, leaving the country extremely vulnerable to recurrent and intense earthquakes.

Where do Afghanistan’s Earthquakes occur? 

• Hindu Kush Region (Northern Afghanistan): Produces both shallow and deep-focus quakes due to the Indian Plate’s lithosphere sinking into the mantle, making it one of the world’s most unique seismic zones. 
• Sulaiman Range (SE Afghanistan & Western Pakistan): Known for shallow, thrust fault quakes, often destructive at the surface. 
• Main Pamir Thrust Zone: Another hotspot for shallow, surface-level earthquakes that cause high damage. 
• Overall Vulnerability: These regions together make Afghanistan one of the most earthquake-prone countries, with repeated deadly events since the 1990s. 

Conclusion 

The 2025 Afghanistan earthquakes are a stark reminder that natural hazards, when combined with social and political fragility, become full-blown catastrophes 

Where to use  

Paper I ( Geography Optional ) : Geomorphology  

Source :   

https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/two-powerful-aftershocks-pummel-afghanistan-after-earthquakes-kill-2200-2025-09-05/?utm_source=chatgpt.com 

Regenerative Tourism : Regenerative tourism goes beyond sustainable tourism by aiming not only to minimize harm but also to restore and improve ecosystems, cultures, and local economies. It emphasizes community participation, biodiversity protection, and circular resource use. For example, eco-villages in Costa Rica or community-led tourism in Ladakh aim to enhance natural habitats and cultural resilience. Unlike traditional tourism, it leaves destinations better than before, creating long-term ecological and socio-economic benefits. It aligns with concepts of resilience and sustainable development. 

Silver Economy : The silver economy refers to the economic opportunities and industries catering to the aging population, especially those above 60 years. It includes healthcare, wellness, financial services, housing, tourism, and assistive technologies tailored to older adults. With global population aging (United Nations estimates one in six people will be over 65 by 2050), the silver economy is becoming a key driver of employment and innovation. Japan and Europe are leading in this sector, linking it with longevity, healthcare infrastructure, and social security planning.

Hypercarnivorous: A hypercarnivore is an animal whose diet consists of more than 70% meat. Such species are at the top of food chains and play critical roles in regulating prey populations and maintaining ecosystem balance. Examples include tigers, polar bears, and orcas. Their survival is highly sensitive to ecosystem changes, as prey availability directly impacts them. In paleontology, hypercarnivory also refers to ancient predators like saber-toothed cats. Conservation of hypercarnivores is vital to preventing trophic cascades and biodiversity collapse.

Telecoupling: Telecoupling is a concept in geography and sustainability science that explains how distant human and natural systems are interconnected through flows of resources, people, and information. For example, soybean cultivation in Brazil is linked to meat demand in China, affecting deforestation and global carbon cycles. It highlights global interdependence in trade, migration, and environmental change. Telecoupling encourages policymakers to think beyond local or national boundaries, recognizing the global feedback loops and spillover effects of human-environment interactions. 

Trophic Cascade: A trophic cascade occurs when changes at the top of a food chain cause cascading effects down through lower levels of the ecosystem. For example, the reintroduction of wolves in Yellowstone National Park reduced elk numbers, allowing vegetation to recover and benefiting species like beavers and birds. This concept demonstrates the importance of predators in maintaining ecosystem balance. Trophic cascades can be triggered by species loss, overhunting, or invasive species, linking ecology to resilience and biodiversity conservation. 

The report from the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) reveals that glaciers in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region are diminishing at a rate 65% more rapid than previously observed. It is anticipated that water levels in the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra rivers will rise until 2050 in the near term, but will significantly decline, by approximately 80%, by the year 2100. Moreover, climate change is having a profound impact on the region's biodiversity; for instance, the living area for the Himalayan ibex is expected to shrink by 33 to 64%. 

Where to use :  

https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/climate-change/rockies-alps-himalayas-more-rain-less-snow-in-northern-hemisphere-mountains-as-temperatures-rise-says-report-90308 

Source :  

Paper III ( General Studies ) : Environment  

Paper II ( Geography Optional ) : Global warming and climatic impacts  

Paper I ( General Studies ) : Impact of climate on flora and fauna 

1. Shahjahanpur  

Why in news :  A proposal to establish Swami Shukdevanand University in Shahjahanpur was okayed by the state cabinet of Uttar Pradesh.  

About :  

• Shahjahanpur is a municipal corporation, town and district headquarters of Shahjahanpur District in Western Uttar Pradesh, India. 
• It is located between Bareilly and Lucknow, the capital of Uttar Pradesh. 
• A spur route National Highway 731 too passes through Shahjahanpur, linking it to the eastern UP town of Jaunpur. 
• Shahjahanpur railway station lies on Lucknow–Moradabad line of Indian Railways. Several through trains from Lucknow to Delhi pass through Shahjahanpur station. 
  • Approx : Lucknow  

2. Lipulekh Pass 

Why in news :  India has rejected Nepal's objections to the resumption of India-China border trade through the Lipulekh Pass, asserting that Nepal’s claims are not grounded in historical facts.  

About  :  

• It is a high-altitude mountain pass in the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand, near the trijunction of India, Nepal, and China, linking Uttarakhand with Tibet.   
• Strategically located, it serves as a gateway to the higher Himalayas and is historically significant as an ancient trade route connecting the Indian subcontinent with the Tibetan plateau.   
• Lipulekh was the first Indian border post opened for trade with China in 1992, followed by Shipki La in Himachal Pradesh (1994) and Nathu La in Sikkim (2006).  
  • Approx :  Kumaon  

3. Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve  

Why in news :  As per the State Forest Department's survey, the population of saltwater crocodiles  in the Sundarban Biosphere Reserve (SBR) has increased. 

About :  

• It is a vast contiguous mangrove forest ecosystem in the coastal region of Bay of Bengal spread over India and Bangladesh on the delta (world’s largest) of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers. 
• It  is known for its wide range of fauna, including 260 bird species and is home to many rare and globally threatened wildlife species such as the Estuarine Crocodile, Royal Bengal Tiger, Water Monitor Lizard, Gangetic Dolphin and Olive Ridley Turtles. 
• For its preservation, Discovery India and World Wide Fund (WWF) India partnered with the Government of West Bengal and local communities in the Sundarbans in 2019. 
  • Approx :Piyani Island  

4. Gangotri Glacier  

Why in news :  A study by IIT Indore and ICIMOD (Nepal) reveals that the Gangotri Glacier System (GGS), the primary source of the Ganga, has lost 10% of its snowmelt flow over 1980–2020 due to rising temperatures and climate change. 

About :  

• It is one of the largest glaciers in the Himalayas and is the primary source of the Ganges, the largest river in India.  
• It is situated in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand in the Garhwal Himalayas.  
• It originates at the northern slope of the Chaukhamba range of peaks. 
• It is fed by snow and ice from several peaks, including Shivling, Thalay Sagar, Meru, and Bhagirathi III.  
• It lies at an altitude of around 4,000 meters bordering Tibet. 
• The glacier is around 30 km in length and 4 km in width. 
• Popularly known as Gaumukh, the terminus of the glacier resembles a cow’s mouth.  
  • Approx : Uttarkashi  

5. Moyar valley  

Why in news :  Indian rock python population dwindles elsewhere across T.N., it thrives in Moyar Valley. 

About :  

• The Moyar Valley stretches approximately 85 km from Gudalur through the core area of the Mudumalai Tiger Reserve within the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve in Tamil Nadu. 
• It weaves through a picturesque landscape of hills and deep gorges, creating a rich and diverse habitat. 
• This valley serves as a wildlife haven, sheltering several vital species: Tigers, Elephants, gaurs, ungulates like spotted deer, blackbuck, sambar and the critically endangered Gyps vulture. 
• It is the only region in peninsular India where the largest nesting colony of Gyps vultures can be found in the wild. 
• Carcasses of wildlife from Moyar village to Bhavanisagar serve as a vital food source for vultures. 
• These carcasses are mostly free from harmful substances like NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) and other poisonous chemicals. 
  • Approx : Niligiri BR 

Q1. Consider the following statements regarding National Green Tribunal (NGT) :  

1. The National Green Tribunal (NGT) came into existence pursuant to the Environment Protection Act of 1986. 

2. The appointment of the NGT Chairperson is made by the President of India. 

3. NGT functions in accordance with the regulations specified in the Code of Civil Procedure of 1908. 

How many of the above statements are not correct? 

1. Only one  
2. Only two 
3. All three 
4. None  

Q2. With reference to the Kiwi Bird, Consider the following statements: 

1. Kiwi is a bird that cannot fly and is native to New Zealand. 

2. IUCN ( International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), has listed it as  "Vulnerable" . 

3. The Capital Kiwi Project in New Zealand strives to revitalize a sizable wild kiwi population through initiatives led by the community. 

How many of the statements given above are not correct? 

1. Only one  
2. Only two 
3. All three 
4. None  

Q3. Consider the following statements , regarding Diel Vertical Migration (DVM) :  

1. The synchronized movement of marine organisms, known as DVM, is frequently observed in deep-sea creatures such as zooplankton. 

2. This coordinated pattern serves as a strategic survival tactic, enabling these organisms to locate food and evade predators effectively. 

3. DVM plays a role in capturing carbon dioxide, contributing to the regulation of atmospheric carbon concentration. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

1. 1 and 2 only 
2.  2 only 
3. 3 only 
4. 1, 2 and 3 only 

Q4. With reference to ethanol production, consider the following statements: 

1. In 2023, India introduced a 20% ethanol-blended petrol and intends to extend this coverage nationwide by 2025. 

2. Grains exhibit higher ethanol yields than molasses 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

1. 1 Only 
2. 2 Only 
3. Both 1 and 2 
4. Neither 1 nor 2 

Q5. Scimitar-horned oryx, recently in news, is is best described as: 

1. An antelope  
2. A deep-sea carnivore  
3. A rare avian species  
4. An amphibious   

Q6. Consider the following statements regarding Special Economic Zone (SEZs): 

1. Special Economic Zones (SEZs) are designated areas subject to economic laws more stringent than those of a country's domestic regulations. 

2. Kandla in Gujarat witnessed the establishment of Asia's inaugural Export Processing Zone in 1965. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

1. 1 Only 
2. 2 Only 
3. Both 1 and 2 
4. Neither 1 nor 2 

Q7. Consider the following statements: 

1. In the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) mechanism, the financial responsibility for waste management is transferred from the producer to the government. 

2. Principle of 'polluter pays' emphasizes that the entities responsible for producing pollution should assume the costs associated with its management. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

1. 1 Only 
2. 2 Only 
3. Both 1 and 2 
4. Neither 1 nor 2 

Q8. Consider the following statements regarding the Wild Yak :  

1. The present habitat of the Wild Yak is confined solely to Bhutan and Nepal. 

2. The Wild Yak is listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 2022. 

3. IUCN has classified  it as critically endangered. 

How many of the statements given above are correct? 

1. Only one  
2. Only two 
3. All three 
4. None 

Q9. Consider the following statements regarding the Gulf of Aden :  

1. It is located  between Yemen on the southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula and Somalia in Africa. 

2. It links the Red Sea to the Arabian Sea through the Strait of Bab el Mandeb. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

1. 1 Only 
2. 2 Only 
3. Both 1 and 2 
4. Neither 1 nor 2 

Q10. With reference to the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI), consider the following statements: 

1. The CCPI functions as an autonomous monitoring tool to evaluate the climate protection performance of countries. 

2. It has been released on an annual basis, since 2005 

3. The publication of the CCPI involves collaboration between Germanwatch, the NewClimate Institute, and Climate Action Network International. 

How many of the statements given above are not correct? 

1. Only one  
2. Only two 
3. All three 
4. None