Why in news? : Black carbon (BC) from fossil fuel and biomass combustion darkens the snow and makes it melt sooner. The BC footprint of research activities and tourism in Antarctica has likely increased as human presence in the continent has surged in recent decades.

About : 

Introduction:

In an era where environmental consciousness is of paramount importance, the black carbon footprint emerges as a complex and multi-dimensional challenge. Black carbon, commonly referred to as soot, is a fine particulate matter produced from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biomass, and other organic materials. It is a significant contributor to global warming, air pollution, and adverse health effects. 

Natural causes of Black Carbon :

• Wildfires: Wildfires inject large amounts of black carbon (BC) particles into the atmosphere, which can reach the lowermost stratosphere (LMS) and cause strong radiative forcing. Black Carbon Emissions from the Siberian Fires in 2019 impacting the entire Arctic region.
• Volcanic Eruptions: Black carbon emissions due to volcanic eruption of Mount St. Helens in the United States in 1980 dispersed over long distances by wind patterns.
• Biomass Burning: Natural events like lightning strikes can ignite biomass, such as forests or grasslands, leading to the release of black carbon and other smoke particles. Eg Amazon rain forest fires in South America.
• Vegetation Decay: Black carbon emissions due to vegetation decay is found in peatlands.  A notable example is the draining and degradation of peatlands in Southeast Asia, particularly in Indonesia
• Dust Storms: Wind-blown dust particles can mix with soot and become black carbon aerosols. One notable example is the "Asian Dust" phenomenon, also known as the "Yellow Dust" or "Yellow Sand," which occurs in East Asia.

Anthropogenic causes of Black Carbon:

• Fossil Fuel Combustion:  According to the USA,  fossil fuel combustion accounted for approximately 25% of the black carbon emissions in the country.
• Transportation: In 2016, the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Delhi conducted a study and found that transportation was a major source of black carbon emissions in Delhi.
• Waste Incineration: Burning of waste in open dumps or poorly controlled incineration facilities can emit black carbon and other pollutants.
• Residential Energy Use: In the Himalayan state of Uttarakhand and Himachal, many households rely on traditional cooking stoves that burn solid fuels like wood, agricultural residues, and dung for their daily cooking needs, significantly contributing in black carbon emissions.
• Deforestation and Land Use Changes: Researchers from the Woods Hole Research Center and the University of California, Irvine, found that deforestation and associated land use changes were responsible for significant black carbon emissions in the Amazon basin.  

 Significant Impacts of Black Carbon:

• Human Health :  Black carbon is a major component of fine particulate matter (PM2.5). Inhalation of PM2.5 can lead to respiratory and cardiovascular problems, particularly in vulnerable populations such as children and the elderly.
• Climate Change: Black  absorbs sunlight and contributes to regional and global warming, influencing the Earth's energy balance and climate patterns.  As black carbon settles on the Himalayan glaciers, it accelerates their melting rates.
• Agriculture and Food Security: Black carbon in the atmosphere can reduce sunlight reaching crops, leading to lower photosynthesis rates and potentially reducing crop yields. Crops like rice, wheat, and maize can be particularly affected, impacting food production and availability. Black carbon can alter regional weather patterns, including the timing and intensity of monsoon rains. 
• Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Black carbon deposition in Arctic soils affects the temperature and moisture regimes of the soil. This, in turn, can alter the microbial communities living in the soil, which play critical roles in nutrient cycling.
• Tourism and Industry : Poor air quality resulting from black carbon emissions can deter tourists from visiting certain areas, impacting local tourism-based economies. Study finds an increased concentration of black carbon in Gangotri region during tourist seasons.

How Black Carbon Disturbs the Heat Budget of the Earth ?

• Absorption of Solar radiation:    Black carbon particles when released into the atmosphere,  intercept solar radiation and convert it into heat. This process reduces the albedo , warms the surrounding air and contributes to the overall heating of the atmosphere. 
• Disruption of Atmospheric Stability:  Black carbon in the atmosphere can alter the vertical temperature profile, reducing the stability of the atmosphere. This can impact cloud formation and weather systems, leading to changes in precipitation patterns and atmospheric circulation.
• Affecting Clouds: Black carbon particles can act as cloud condensation nuclei, influencing the formation and properties of clouds. This can lead to changes in cloud behavior, potentially affecting cloud cover and cloud lifetimes, and ultimately impacting the Earth's energy balance.
• Affecting Ocean Circulation : Melting of ice due to black carbon deposition can lead to changes in ocean circulation patterns. As fresh meltwater enters the ocean, it can disrupt the balance of salinity and density, affecting ocean currents and heat distribution.
• Ocean Warming: Black carbon contributes to the heating of the atmosphere when it absorbs sunlight. As the atmosphere warms, it can transfer some of this heat to the ocean through increased evaporation and ocean-atmosphere heat exchange.

Activities undertaken by selected GEF( Global Environment Facility ) Implementing Agencies and other international organizations towards mitigating Black Carbon.

SOLUTIONS TO MITIGATE THE EMISSIONS OF BLACK CARBON

• Cleaner Energy Sources: Transitioning from fossil fuels to cleaner energy sources, such as renewable energy (solar, wind, hydroelectric) and natural gas, can significantly reduce black carbon emissions from power generation, industrial processes, and residential heating.  India's initiative to switch from BS IV to BS VI engine vehicles is commendable .
• Improved Cooking Technologies: Promoting the use of improved cookstoves and clean fuels (e.g., LPG, biogas) for cooking can help reduce black carbon emissions from traditional biomass burning in households.  The Government of India introduced  PMUY  ( Pradhan Mantri Ujjawala Yojana ) offers BPL households a cash contribution of Rs 1600 for each LPG connection.
• Advanced Emission Control Technologies: Installing and maintaining advanced emission control devices, such as particulate filters and scrubbers, can help capture black carbon and other pollutants from exhaust gases.  WAYU (Wind Augmentation PurifYing Unit) was  developed to address air pollution at traffic intersections and dense traffic zones.
• International Cooperation: Addressing black carbon emissions requires collaboration between countries, especially for transboundary pollution. International agreements and partnerships can support collective efforts to mitigate black carbon emissions.

 Conclusion 

• The measures to prevent black carbon emissions can reduce near-term warming of the climate, increase crop yields and prevent premature deaths.
• Black carbon’s short atmospheric lifetime, combined with its strong warming potential, means that targeted strategies to reduce emissions can provide climate and health benefits within a relatively short period of time.

Source :

 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-28560-w

https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022NatCo..13..984C/abstract

Where to use ?

Paper I ( Geography Optional ) : Global Climatic change, Role and response of man in climatic changes

Why in news : Indian Ocean island experienced one of its hottest Octobers, with even the capital and highlands experiencing record heat.

About : 

• In a glaring testament to the escalating climate crisis, Madagascar, the world's fourth-largest island and second-largest island country, has been grappling with an unseasonal and intense heatwave. 
• The Indian Ocean state, renowned for its rich biodiversity, is experiencing climatic anomalies that are causing widespread concern among its populace.

Record-Breaking Temperatures

• In 2023 year, Madagascar recorded its hottest October, with temperatures soaring over 2.5°C above the average, a climatic extreme generally not witnessed until the months of December or January. 
• This finding was part of a comprehensive study conducted by the World Weather Attribution (WWA). The capital city, Antananarivo, situated in the Madagascar highlands and home to over three million residents, bore the brunt of this unprecedented heat, experiencing some of the most intense and unusual temperatures.

Impact of Climate Change on Madagascar:

• The researchers concluded that the October heatwave and the observed minimum temperatures in Antananarivo were at least 100 times more probable due to the current climate change trajectory, driven primarily by the burning of fossil fuels.

The Perplexed Malagasy Population:

• Farmers in regions like the Amboasary Gare district and Manakambahiny Andrefana district, known for their agricultural prominence, expressed their concerns about the delayed rainfall and its impact on their crops. The dry and compact soil conditions have disrupted traditional farming practices and livelihoods.
• The Famine Early Warning Systems Network highlighted abnormally hot conditions in various parts of southern Africa, including Madagascar. This rise in temperature, especially in the highlands and the capital, is a departure from the usual climatic patterns observed in the region.

Vulnerability and Human Impact: 

• With approximately 91% of the population living in poverty and 50% lacking access to clean water or electricity, the majority are deprived of basic amenities to cope with the heat. The inadequate housing conditions further exacerbate their vulnerability. 
• The study emphasizes the need for significant investment in weather forecasting, early-warning systems, and heat planning to bolster resilience against the heat.

Health Implications

• The heatwave has not only affected the livelihoods but also posed serious health risks. 
• The rising temperatures have expanded the habitat range of malaria-carrying mosquitos, leading to an increase in malaria cases in regions like Antananarivo, which were previously shielded by their cooler climates.

Conclusion:

Madagascar's struggle with the unprecedented October heatwave is a clear indicator of the intensifying climate crisis. The study underscores the necessity for immediate and concerted efforts to enhance community and governmental resilience against the impending climate threats. As Madagascar ranks alarmingly low on the Global Hunger Index, the urgency to address these climatic challenges and mitigate their impact on the vulnerable population cannot be overstated. The situation calls for a global acknowledgment of the crisis and a unified approach towards sustainable and resilient climate adaptation strategies.

Where to use ?

Paper I ( Geography Optional ) : Heat waves and rising temperature 

Paper III ( General Studies ) :  Global warming and its impacts 

Source : 

https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/africa/heat-waves-to-intensify-in-madagascar-one-of-earth-s-richest-biodiversity-hotspots-wwa-study-93435#:~:text=They%20found%20that%20the%20October,the%20burning%20of%20fossil%20fuels.

Why in news :  The southern states of India, particularly Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana, are facing a severe water crisis due to significantly low water levels in major reservoirs.

About : 

• The Central Water Commission reports that the majority of significant reservoirs in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana are at or below 25% capacity.
• Key dams such as Tungabhadra in Karnataka and Nagarjuna Sagar, located on the border between Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, are filled to less than 5% of their total capacity.
• Similarly, the Mettur dam in Tamil Nadu and Srisailam on the border of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana are also experiencing depleted levels, with water storage under 30% of their full capacity.

Comparison of Water Levels Across Regions

• The southern region is currently facing significant water scarcity, with its reservoirs filled to merely 23% of their capacity—a figure substantially below both the previous year's levels and the ten-year average. 
• In stark contrast, reservoirs in northern, central, western, and eastern India are maintaining water levels that align more closely with their ten-year historical averages.

Exception in Kerala:

• Kerala is an exception among the southern states, with the majority of its major dams reaching at least 50% capacity. 
• Notably, reservoirs such as Idukki, Idamalayar, Kallada, and Kakki have maintained comparatively higher water levels.

What are the Reasons for the Water Crisis in South India?

• Impact of El Niño on Rainfall: The El Niño phenomenon, which involves the warming of sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean, disrupts global weather patterns and often results in lower rainfall, thereby causing drought conditions and extended dry spells in the region.
• Monsoon and Post-Monsoon Rainfall Shortfalls: The region has faced significant water depletion in reservoirs due to insufficient rainfall during both the monsoon and the post-monsoon seasons. The monsoon's delayed start and lack of adequate rainfall at crucial times have worsened the situation. Notably, over 50% of the country experienced rainfall deficiency from October to December 2023.
• Elevated Temperatures and Increased Evaporation: Global warming has led to higher temperatures which, in turn, increase evaporation rates, accelerating the reduction of water levels in reservoirs and other bodies of water. These higher temperatures also intensify drought conditions and elevate water demand across agricultural, urban, and industrial sectors.
• Overuse of Groundwater: In areas where surface water is scarce, there has been an over-reliance on groundwater for irrigation. This is particularly evident in the cultivation of water-intensive crops like rice, sugarcane, and cotton in South India, leading to significant groundwater depletion.
• Contamination of Water Sources: Industrial effluents, untreated sewage, and the dumping of solid waste have polluted many water bodies, making the water unsuitable for use and diminishing the overall water supply. According to a study by the Environmental Management & Policy Research Institute (EMPRI), approximately 85% of water bodies in Bengaluru are affected by these pollutants.
• Challenges in Water Management and Distribution: The water scarcity crisis is exacerbated by inefficient water management practices that include high levels of wastage, leakage, and inequitable distribution of water resources.

What are the Government Initiatives To Tackle the Water Crisis in India?

• MGNREGA for water conservation
• Jal Kranti Abhiyan
• National Water Mission
• Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABHY)
• Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM)
• National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG)

Way Forward

• Addressing the water crisis in southern India requires a comprehensive approach, including sustainable water management practices, conservation measures, investment in infrastructure for water storage and distribution, promotion of water-efficient technologies, and public awareness campaigns to promote water conservation. 
• One Water Approach, also referred to as Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)  includes managing that source in an integrated, inclusive and sustainable manner by including the community, business leaders, industries, farmers, conservationists, policymakers, academics and others for ecological and economic benefits.
• Encourage farmers to adopt water-efficient farming practices such as drip irrigation, precision agriculture, crop rotation, and agroforestry.
• As per the MS Swaminathan committee report on ‘More Crop and Income Per Drop of Water’ (2006), drip and sprinkler irrigation can save around 50% of water in crop cultivation and increase the yield of crops by 40-60%.
• There is a need for coordinated efforts at the national, state, and local levels are essential to mitigate the impacts of water scarcity and ensure sustainable water resource management for future generations.

Source: 

https://www.firstpost.com/explainers/bengaluru-water-crisis-south-india-water-shortage-13754137.html#:~:text=The%20southern%20region's%2042%20reservoirs,for%20the%20previous%20ten%20years.

https://www.thehindu.com/data/water-levels-dangerously-low-in-major-dams-in-south-india-data/article67998189.ece

Where to use

Paper II ( Geography Optional ) : Water resources 

Paper 1( General Studies ) : Resources and Planning 

Major causes for Marine pollution in North Sea are - Eutrophication , Plastic pollution , ocean mining , sewage and industrial toxins and offshore drilling. Ekofisk , an oil field was blown out in the year 1977, spilling 20, 2380 barrels of oil in North Sea.  Industrial waste, Poly chlorinated biphenols dumped in river Rhine is discharged in North sea . Even run off from agri fields carries Nitrates and phosphates creating many marine dead zones in the North Sea.  According to Global Plastic Outlook , 300 million tonnes of plastic is dumped in oceans  annually , of which 50% is single use plastic.

Source : 

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10750-018-3559-2#:~:text=The%20North%20Sea%20has%20seen,contamination%20and%20deaths%20of%20seabirds.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255702521_Pollution_of_the_North_Sea_-_An_Assessment

Where to use : 

Paper 1 ( Geography optional ) : Oceanography and marine pollution 

1. Dirang 

Why in news :  Northeast India’s first geothermal production well has been drilled in Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh.

About :  

• Dirang is located in the West Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh in the Eastern Himalayas.
  
• It lies in a seismically active and geothermally rich zone, part of the Himalayan geothermal belt.
  
• The region is known for its hot water springs and is close to the Sela Pass and Tawang.
  
• It has high altitudinal variations and supports alpine to temperate ecosystems

2. Anamalai Tiger Reserve

Why in news :  The pre-monsoon (summer) estimation of tigers, co-predators, prey, and their habitats has begun in the Anamalai Tiger Reserve (ATR), Tamil Nadu. 

About : 

• Situated in the Western Ghats across Coimbatore and Tiruppur districts of Tamil Nadu.
  
• It is a biodiversity hotspot and part of the larger Anamalai Hills, also known as Elephant Hills.
  
• Rivers like Aliyar and Amaravathi originate from this reserve, feeding agricultural lands downstream.
  
• The reserve features tropical evergreen forests and is a corridor for elephant and tiger movement.

3. Niyamgiri Hills

Why in news :  The Dongria Kondh are a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG) residing in Odisha’s Niyamgiri Hills and are known for their spiritual bond with nature, and distinct culture.

About : 

• Located in the Eastern Ghats, spanning the districts of Rayagada and Kalahandi in Odisha.
  
• These hills are rich in bauxite reserves but are ecologically and culturally sensitive.
  
• Home to the Dongria Kondh PVTG, the hills are sacred and integral to their identity.
  
• The region supports moist deciduous forests and forms the catchment of the Vansadhara river.

4. Bhimgad Wildlife Sanctuary (BWS)

Why in news :  Public intrusion into the eco-sensitive zone of Bhimgad Wildlife Sanctuary (BWS) has triggered serious concern among conservationists, highlighting threats to the region’s fragile ecosystem and biodiversity. 

About : 

• Located in Belagavi district, Karnataka, part of the Western Ghats UNESCO World Heritage Site.
  
• It is known for housing the Barapede caves—the only known breeding site of Wroughton’s Free-tailed Bat.
  
• The sanctuary supports tropical evergreen forests and is a crucial biodiversity hotspot.
  
• It forms part of the Mahadayi river basin, important for water security in Goa and Karnataka.

5. Kaleshwaram 

Why in news : The Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project (KLIP) in Telangana is under scrutiny after the National Dam Safety Authority (NDSA) reported significant structural damage and design flaws in the project. 

About : 

• Located near the confluence of the Godavari and Pranahita rivers in the Jayashankar-Bhupalpally district.
  
• The Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project (KLIP) is one of the world’s largest multi-stage lift irrigation systems.
  
• The region features undulating topography with black soil and dry deciduous forest cover.
  
• It lies in a semi-arid climatic zone with high dependence on irrigation for agriculture.