Concept of Moral Good and Evil

Morality has been a subject of discussion and debate in various philosophical schools of thought. Different schools of thought propose different theories on what constitutes moral good and evil. Some of these schools of thought include:

Divine Positivists: Divine positivists believe that actions are good or evil only because God has commanded them to be so. According to this theory, the positive laws of God determine the morality of human actions. However, this theory raises questions about how God could command certain actions to be moral or immoral, such as commanding murder to be moral at one time and immoral at another.

Human Positivists: Human positivists believe that the difference between right and wrong arises from tribal customs or social influences. Jean-Jacques Rousseau held that actions are good when the state commands them and evil when the state forbids them. Thomas Huxley believed that the notions of moral good and moral evil have changed over time. However, this theory fails to explain the universal agreement that certain actions, such as murder, are morally evil.

Scholasticism: Scholastics believe that there is an intrinsic difference between good and evil. They argue that at least some human actions are either intrinsically good or evil. According to this theory, actions that lead a person toward their end are good, while actions that lead a person away from their end are evil.

Critiques of the Different Schools of Thought

Each of the schools of thought has its own set of critiques, as follows:

1. Divine Positivists: One critique of the divine positivist theory is that it undermines the usefulness of ethics, as human reason becomes incapable of distinguishing between right and wrong. Another critique is that the theory does not explain how God could command certain actions to be moral or immoral.
2. Human Positivists: One critique of the human positivist theory is that it fails to explain the universal agreement that certain actions, such as murder, are morally evil. Another critique is that education and cultural development alone cannot fully explain our perception of what is right and wrong.
3. Scholasticism: One critique of the scholastic theory is that it does not fully account for the complexities and nuances of human action and behavior. Additionally, the notion of an intrinsic difference between good and evil may be difficult to determine and define in practice.

The concepts of moral good and moral evil have been explored by various schools of thought throughout history. Each of these schools of thought offers a unique perspective on what constitutes moral good and moral evil, as well as the factors that contribute to them. The following is a discussion of some of the key schools of thought and their ideas.

1. Virtue Ethics: Virtue ethics is a school of thought that emphasizes the cultivation of virtues as a means of achieving moral good. According to this school of thought, moral good is achieved through the development of virtues such as honesty, courage, compassion, and wisdom. Proponents of this school of thought include Aristotle, who believed that virtues were habits that enable individuals to act in accordance with reason, and Confucius, who believed that moral good is achieved through the cultivation of virtues such as benevolence and righteousness.
2. Deontological Ethics: Deontological ethics is a school of thought that emphasizes the importance of following moral rules and duties. According to this school of thought, moral good is achieved by following moral laws and principles, regardless of their consequences. Proponents of this school of thought include Immanuel Kant, who believed that moral good is determined by the intention behind an action, and Thomas Aquinas, who believed that moral good is achieved by following the natural law.
3. Consequentialist Ethics: Consequentialist ethics is a school of thought that emphasizes the importance of the consequences of an action in determining moral good. According to this school of thought, moral good is achieved by maximizing the positive consequences of an action and minimizing the negative consequences. Proponents of this school of thought include John Stuart Mill, who believed that moral good is achieved by promoting the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people, and Jeremy Bentham, who developed the concept of utilitarianism.
4. Existentialist Ethics: Existentialist ethics is a school of thought that emphasizes the importance of individual freedom and responsibility in determining moral good. According to this school of thought, moral good is achieved by taking responsibility for one's actions and creating one's own values and moral codes. Proponents of this school of thought include Jean-Paul Sartre, who believed that individuals are responsible for creating their own moral values, and Friedrich Nietzsche, who rejected traditional ideas of morality and ethics in favor of a morality of self-creation.