Bahadur Shah I (1707–1712)

Bahadur Shah I ascended the throne after the death of his father, Aurangzeb, marking the beginning of the Later Mughal period. His reign is notable for efforts to restore a sense of cultural tolerance, moving away from Aurangzeb's strict Islamic policies. In the beginning, he tried to exercise more control over Amber and Marwar, but in the end, ended up giving them high mansabs. He also granted the Marathas the sardeshmukhi of Deccan but failed to give them the chauth. Thus, the Marathas were not fully satisfied. He also tried to pacify the Sikhs by giving Guru Gobind Singh high mansabs. But later, he also crushed a rebellion by Banda Bahadur, who was Gobind Singh’s successor. However, his reign was short-lived, and internal strife within the empire set the stage for the turbulent years that followed.

Jahandar Shah (1712–1713)

Jahandar Shah, the successor to Bahadur Shah I, faced numerous challenges, including the influence of the Sayyid brothers who held significant power. His reign is often remembered for the instability within the empire. The prince was the least interested in administration and it passed into the hands of Zulfiqar. His policies, however, were, clever and progressive.

Jahandar Shah recognized the need to foster friendly relations with Rajput rajas, Maratha sardars, and local clans. He addressed unmet demands from Marwar and Amber, abolishing the jizyah tax and granting the Marathas the chauth and sardeshmukhi of Deccan. However, his introduction of irjarah (revenue farming) was widely unpopular. Jealous nobles, displeased with Zulfiqar Khan's influence, fueled discord, leading to misunderstandings. Ultimately, Jahandar Shah was defeated at Agra by his nephew Farrukh Siyar.

Farrukhsiyar (1713–1719)

Farrukhsiyar's reign witnessed power struggles, both within the Mughal court and with regional powers. Farukh Siyar was supported by the Saiyyid brothers – Hussain Ali Khan Barahow and Abdulla Khan. They were made the mir-bakshi and wazir respectively.

He faced the formidable challenge of dealing with the rising power of the Sikhs in Punjab and the emergence of the Marathas in the Deccan. The Treaty of Agra (1719) signed with the Marathas marked a significant concession of power, highlighting the declining influence of the Mughal Empire.

Muhammad Shah (1719–1748)

Muhammad Shah's reign, one of the longest among the Later Mughals, was characterized by relative stability. However, this period also saw the gradual erosion of Mughal authority. The Battle of Karnal (1739) against Nadir Shah, resulting in the sacking of Delhi, was a severe blow to the empire. Despite the challenges, Muhammad Shah was a patron of the arts and played a role in the cultural renaissance of the time.

Two of his chief officers established their own kingdom. They were:

• Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-mulk- Awadh was founded by Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-mulk who was appointed as its governor in 1722. He carried out a fresh revenue settlement in 1723. He too did not show any religious discrimination. He continued the jagir system. Before his death in 1739, he had become virtually independent and had made his position hereditary.
• Nizam-ul-mulk- Hyderabad was founded by Nizam-ul-mulk Asaf Jhah in 1724. Although he was made the wazir of the Mughal empire in 1722 itself, he didn’t believe in a return of the Mughal empire. So, right from 1720, he had strengthened his control over Deccan, though he never laid an independent claim to it. He waged wars and concluded treaties. He followed a policy of religious tolerance in his state. 

Alamgir-II (1754-1759)

His original name was Aziz-ud-din. He ruled with the title of Alamgir-II. (Aurangzeb is called as Alamgir-II). Ahmad Shah Abdall, the ruler of Afghanistan plundered Delhi during his reign. Alamgir II's reign was marked by continuous external threats and internal strife. He faced challenges from the Marathas, the British, and internal conspiracies. Alamgir II's rule reflected the diminishing power of the Mughal Empire, with regional powers gaining ascendancy. Imad-ul-Mulk, the Wazir of Alamgir-II assassinated him and threw his dead body into river Yamuna.

Shah Alam-II (1759-1806)

His original name was Ali Gauhar. Due to the fear of his prime minister Imad- ul-Mulk, he escaped from Delhi and lived in Awadh as a refugee for 12 years. Later, a British military general Lord Lake occupied Delhi in 1803 and annexed it to the British Empire which marked the end of Mughal rule and Shah Alam became a pensioner of the East India Company. Thereafter all the Mughal rulers lived with the pensions granted by the British.

Nadir Shah

Nadir Shah Afshar, a formidable military leader and founder of the Afsharid dynasty of Iran, left an indelible mark on the pages of history during his rule from 1736 to 1747. Recognized as one of the most powerful monarchs in Iranian history, his conquests extended beyond the borders of Persia, notably culminating in the invasion of Northern India. The events surrounding his invasion exposed the vulnerabilities of the crumbling Mughal Empire, leading to the infamous Battle of Karnal in 1739 and the subsequent sack of Delhi.

Early Life and Rise to Power

Nadir Shah's journey began at the fortress of Dastgerd, where he was born into the Qereqlu clan of the Afshars, a semi-nomadic Turkic Qizilbash pastoralist tribe residing in the northern valleys of Khorasan. Born during the waning years of the Safavid dynasty, Nadir Shah witnessed the decline of the once formidable Safavid Empire, marked by weak leadership under Sultan Husayn.

In 1730, seizing the opportunity presented by the weakening Safavid rule, Nadir Shah ascended to the throne of Persia. His forces captured Esfahan, the seat of the Safavid dynasty, and established the Afsharid dynasty. Subsequently, Nadir Shah's military campaigns extended to Kandahar, the last stronghold of the Hotaki dynasty in Afghanistan, solidifying his control over the region.

Afsharid Dynasty

The Afsharid dynasty, emerging in 1736 under Nadir Shah's leadership, marked a significant chapter in Iranian history. Descended from the Turkoman Afshar clan in the northeastern region of Khorasan, the dynasty attained its zenith under Nadir Shah's rule. The expansive empire ruled over modern-day Iran, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan Republic, parts of the North Caucasus, Afghanistan, Bahrain, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Pakistan, as well as sections of Iraq, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, and Oman.

Nadir Shah's demise in 1747 initiated the decline of the Afsharid dynasty, with subsequent partitioning among various factions, including the Zands, Durranis, Georgians, and Caucasian khanates. Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar eventually overthrew the Afsharids in 1796, establishing a new native Iranian kingdom and restoring Iranian suzerainty over several provinces.

Invasion of India by Nadir Shah

Nadir Shah's military prowess extended beyond the borders of Persia, with his invasion of Northern India in 1738. The invasion was ostensibly justified by the perceived insult to the Persian ambassador at the royal court of Delhi by the Mughal ruler Muhammad Shah.

Advancing into Mughal territories, Nadir Shah was joined by Erekle II, his Georgian vassal, as they crossed the Hindu Kush mountains. The culmination of this campaign was the War of Karnal in 1739, where Nadir Shah's forces decisively defeated the Mughals.

Massacre and Plunder of Delhi

Triumphant in the War of Karnal, Nadir Shah entered Delhi, exposing the frailty of the Mughal Empire. The keys to the Delhi fort and its treasures were surrendered, including the famed Koh-i-Nur diamond and the jewel-studded Peacock Throne of Shah Jahan.

However, events took a dark turn as word spread falsely that Nadir Shah had been assassinated. Chaos ensued in Delhi, leading to riots and the murder of Persian troops. Enraged, Nadir Shah ordered a brutal massacre on March 11, 1739, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 200,000 inhabitants.

The consequences of Nadir Shah's invasion were severe, with the complete demolition, robbery, and plunder of Delhi. The Peacock Throne, an emblem of Mughal opulence, was carried away along with immense wealth, including the Koh-i-Nur diamond. The invasion left the Mughal Empire in disarray, unable to confront subsequent challenges.

Legacy and Impact

Nadir Shah's invasion of India marked a watershed moment in the history of the Mughal Empire. The catastrophic aftermath, including the loss of territories and prestige, left the Mughals vulnerable to further invasions. Subsequent Afghan invasions by Ahmad Shah Abdali between 1748 and 1767 further weakened the Mughal Empire.

The Peacock Throne, an unparalleled symbol of imperial grandeur, became a casualty of Nadir Shah's conquest. The plundered wealth, including the Koh-i-Nur diamond, found its way to Persia, contributing to the splendor of Nadir Shah's reign.

Nadir Shah's military exploits, particularly his invasion of Northern India, had far-reaching consequences on the political landscape of the region. The sack of Delhi highlighted the vulnerability of established empires and reshaped the course of history, leaving an enduring legacy that echoed through the annals of time.

Ahmad Shah Abdali

Early Life and Rise to Power

Ahmad Shah Durrani, also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali, emerged as a significant historical figure in the 18th century as the founder of the Durrani Empire. Born in Multan in 1722 to Mohammad Zaman Khan, the governor of Herat, and belonging to the Abdali clan, Ahmad Shah's early years were marked by the turbulent political landscape of the region.

The Abdali clan, initially led by Zulfiqar, surrendered to Nader Shah Afshar in 1729 but soon rebelled and reclaimed Herat and Mashhad. Ahmad Shah displayed military prowess by defeating Ibrahim Khan, Nader Shah's brother, in 1730. His association with Nader Shah's army grew, eventually leading to his appointment as the head of the Abdali Regiment during Nader Shah's invasion of the Mughal Empire in 1738.

Formation of the Durrani Empire

The Durrani Empire, also known as the Sadozai Kingdom or the Afghan Empire, was Ahmad Shah Abdali's creation. This Central Asian, Middle Eastern, and South Asian empire reached its zenith under his leadership. Ahmad Shah successfully unified various Pashtun tribes and established the Durrani Empire with the support of his Baloch allies. At its height, the empire encompassed modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan, as well as parts of northeastern and southeastern Iran, eastern Turkmenistan, and northern India.

The Durranis, succeeding the Barakzai dynasty in the early 19th century, traced their lineage to the Durrani Popalzai line, making them the second Pashtun kings of Kandahar after the Hotak dynasty. Ahmad Shah Durrani's leadership played a pivotal role in elevating the Durranis to prominence.

Indian Invasions

Ahmad Shah Durrani left an indelible mark on Indian history through his relentless invasions between 1748 and 1767. Following the death of Nadir Shah in 1747, Ahmad Shah ascended to the Afghan throne and commenced a series of invasions aimed at looting wealth from neighboring territories.

Durrani's invasions significantly contributed to the downfall of the already weakened Mughal Empire. His repeated raids, such as the Chota Ghalughara and Vada Ghalughara, inflicted substantial damage on the Mughals and created a power vacuum in the region. Durrani's "tireless energy, ambition, and purpose" were evident in the frequency of his invasions.

Motivated by the economic disparity between Afghanistan and India, Ahmad Shah targeted the rich but poorly guarded neighboring nation, looting and exploiting its riches. Additionally, he aimed to establish political hegemony in India, capitalizing on the Mughal Empire's decline. In 1757, he seized Delhi and strategically placed an Afghan caretaker to oversee the Mughal emperor.

The Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 marked a significant event in Ahmad Shah Durrani's invasions, where he defeated the Marathas, delivering a severe blow to their ambitions in the north. The battle's aftermath left a lasting impact, halting future Maratha advances in the north and destabilizing their territory for nearly a decade.

Legacy and Impact

Ahmad Shah Abdali's legacy is intertwined with the rise of the Durrani Empire and its impact on the political landscape of South Asia. His invasions expedited the decline of the Mughal Empire and contributed to the fragmentation of its territories. The aftermath of his campaigns set the stage for further power struggles in the region.

Ahmad Shah Abdali's life and reign represent a crucial period in the history of South Asia. His role as the founder of the Durrani Empire and his impact on the Mughal Empire and the Marathas during his invasions underscore his significance as a historical figure in the complex narrative of the Indian subcontinent.